跨文化交际复习提纲.doc

Intercultural Communication Intercultural Communication Defined1. IC is actually an academic and applied discipline that has developed internationally since the 1950s. Sometimes called “cross-cultural communications” or “comparative culture,” or “transculture”. 2. On one level, IC is represented by culture studies, where we examine the political, economic and lifestyle systems of other countries. 3. On another level, it is applied linguistics, where we seek to understand the relationship between language and culture. 4. IC is a broad and well-developed field of study.5. IC is an interdisciplinary application of fields like cultural anthropology, sociology, psychology (and social psychology), communication studies, applied linguistics and educational pedagogy.6. IC is a comprehensive attempt to understand all aspects of human cultures and how they interact with each other.Forms of Intercultural Communicationa. International Communicationb. Interethnic Communicationc. Interracial Communication d. Intracultural CommunicationDefinition Final5) Culture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors, institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people.2.Cultural Metaphors1. The Cultural Iceberg 2. The Cultural Onion 3.The Cultural Software 4.The Cultural Fish 5. The Cultural Story 6. Culture by Chinese 7. Culture by Americans3. Characteristics of Culture 1) Culture is shared The members of a culture share a set of ideals, values, and standards of behaviors, and this set of ideals is what gives meaning to their lives, and what bond them together as a culture. 2)Culture is learnedActually, culture is not innate sensibility, but a learned characteristic. Children begin learning about their own culture at home with their immediate family and how they interact each other, how they dress, and the rituals they perform. When the children are growing in the community, their cultural education is advanced by watching social interactions, taking part in cultural activities and rituals in the community, forming their own relationships and taking their place in the culture.3) Culture is based on symbols. In order for the culture to be transmitted from one person to the next, and from one generation to the next, a system of symbols needs to be created that translates the ideals of the culture to its members. This is accomplished through language, art, religion and money.4) Culture is integratedFor the sake of keeping the culture, functioning all aspects of the culture must be integrated. For example, the language must be able to describe all the functions within the culture in order for ideas and ideals to be transmitted from one person to another. Without the integration of language into the fabric of the culture, confusion and dysfunction would reign and the culture would fail.5) Culture is subjective to change (Dynamic) It is necessary to recognize that cultures are dynamic rather than static. They are constantly changing and evolving under the impact of events and through contact with other cultures. 6) Culture is ethnocentricEthnocentrism is the belief that your own cultural background, including ways of analyzing problems, values, beliefs, language, and verbal and nonverbal communication, is correct. Ethnocentrists believe their culture is the central culture and other cultures are incorrect, ineffective, or quaint.7) Culture is adaptiveHistory offers so many examples of how cultures have changed as a result of laws, shifts in values, natural disasters, wars, or calamities. More and more women work as CEOs in major companies and as officials in government instead of remaining at home looking after children. Both women and men have made adaptation to this cultural change.Western Perspective of communicationIn western cultures, communication is studied as the means of transmitting ideas. Western cultures emphasize the instrumental function of communication; that is, effectiveness is evaluated in terms of success in the manipulation of others to achieve ones personal goal Eastern perspective of communication Definitions of communication from many Asian countries stress harmony, which is most notable in cultures with a Confucian tradition. Eastern cultures understanding would define communication as a process where all parties are searching to develop and maintain a social relationship.2. Components of communicationSender/Source （信息源）A sender/source is the person who transmits a messageMessage （信息）A message is any signal that triggers the response of a receiver. Encoding （编码）Encoding refers to the activity during which the sender must choose certain words or nonverbal methods to send an intentional message. Channel /Medium （渠道）. Channel/Medium is the method used to deliver a message. Receiver （信息接收者）A receiver is any person who notices and gives some meaning to a message.Decoding （解码）Decoding is the activity during which the receiver attaches meaning to the words or symbols he/she has received.Feedback （反馈）The response of a receiver to a senders message is called feedback. Noise （干扰）Noise is a term used for factors that interfere with the exchange of messages, including external noise ，physiological noise, psychological noise and semantic noise. Noise is inevitable.1)External NoiseSounds that distract communicators: voices in the next room; annoying ring of someones cell phone in a meeting; etc.Other types of external noise that dont involve sound:an overcrowded room or a smelly cigar (2) Physiological Noise illnesses and disabilities(3) Psychological Noiseforces with the sender or receiver that interfere with understanding: egotism; hostility; preoccupation; fear; etc.(4) Semantic Noisecaused by using different languages; the use of jargon; different understanding of the message delivered; etc.3.Characteristics of Communicationa. Communication is dynamic b. Communication is systematicc. Communication is symbolicd. Communication is irreversiblee. Communication is transactionalf. Communication is self-reflectiveg. Communication is contextual.High Context A high-context (HC) communication or message is one in which most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, which very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message. Communication occurs in ways other than through language. People share context.HC communication is fast and efficient, but takes long time to learn.Low ContextA low-context (LC) is just the opposite, the mass of information is vested in the explicit code. Communication occurs mostly through language. low-context sources: newspapers, textbooks, lectures, roadmaps, announcements, instruction sheets etc. More impersonal, but effective in transmitting information among people who do not share the same experience. Hofstedes cultural dimensions1. Individualism versus collectivism 2. Uncertainty avoidance3. Power distance4. Masculinity versus femininityUncertainty Avoidance This dimension refers to how comfortable people feel towards ambiguity Cultures which ranked low (compared to other cultures), feel much more comfortable with the unknown. According to Hofstede (霍夫斯太德), uncertainty avoidance refers to the lack of tolerance for ambiguity and the need for formal rules and high-level organizational structure. 1. Culture Shock refers to the traumatic tr:mtik experience that an individual may encounter when entering a different culture. expresses the lack of direction, the feeling of not knowing what to do or how to do things in a new environment, and not knowing what is appropriate or inappropriate.4. Stages of culture shock The honeymoon stage The hostility stage The recovery stage The adjustment stage The biculturality stage1. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesislinguistic determinist interpretation-Language structure controls thoughts and cultural norms. linguistic relativity interpretation-Culture is controlled by and controls language. According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, language is a guide to social reality. It implies that language is not simply a means of reporting experience but, more important, it is a way of defining experience.Eg. Nothing is more important than rice to the Chinese, so we have expressions like “人是铁，饭是钢” and “铁饭碗”. Verbal Communication StylesCulture influences the style of communication at great level. The communication style is concerned with the use of language1.Direct and Indirect Verbal Interaction StylesIn the direct verbal style, statements clearly reveal the speakers intentions. Eg. U.S. Americans tend to use a straightforward form of request. In the indirect verbal style, on the other hand, verbal statements tend to hide the speakers actual intentions. Eg. Chinese tend to ask for a favor in a more roundabout and implicit way.（P180)2. Self-Enhancement and Self-Effacement Verbal Styles The self-enhancement verbal style emphasizes the importance of boasting about ones accomplishments and abilities. Eg. In the classified ads, American ad might begin with, “A handsome, athletic male with a good sense of humor seeks a fun-loving partner” The self-effacement verbal style, on the other hand, emphasizes the importance of humbling oneself via verbal restraints, hesitations and modest talk. Eg. In the classified ads, Japanese ad might read, “Although I am not very good-looking, Im willing to try my best.”3. Elaborate, Exacting and Succinct Styles An elaborate style emphasizes flashy and embellished language. This style of communication can be seen in many Arab, Middle Eastern, and Afro-American cultures. An exacting style, where persons say no more or less than is needed, is used by Americans. A succinct style is characterized by the use of concise statements, understatements, and even silence. A succinct style can be found in Japan, China, and some Native American cultures 4. Personal and Contextual Style The personal communication style emphasizes the individual identity of the speaker. Eg. English has only one form for the second person, that is, you. The contextual style highlights ones role identity and status. Eg. Chinese, German and French, for example, have informal and formal forms of the pronoun you (你/您; du/Sie; tu/vous). 5. Instrumental and Affective Style An instrumental verbal style is sender-based and goal-outcome based. The instrumental speaker uses communication to achieve some goal or outcome. The burden of understanding often rests with the speaker. An affective communication style is receiver and process oriented. The affective speaker is concerned not so much with the outcome of the communication, but with the process. The responsibility of understanding rests with both the speaker and the listener. 2. Categories of Nonverbal CommunicationKinesics(身势语） oculesics(目光语) olfactics(嗅觉) haptics(触觉行为) chromatics(色彩学) attire (服饰 ) paralanguage silence time space context1) Kinesics Kinesics is the non-verbal behavior related to movement, either of any part of the body, or the body as a whole. In short all communicative body movements are generally classified as kinesics. 1.Human Perception(1) Sensation(2) Perception (3) Selection(4) Organization(5) Interpretation The definition of acculturationAcculturation（文化适应）refers to an individuals learning and adopting the norms and values of the new host culture2. Modes of acculturationa. Assimilation is a process in which members of an ethnic group are absorbed into the dominant culture, losing their culture in the process. b. Integration is a process of desiring a high level of interaction with the host culture while maintaining identity with their native culture. c. Separation and segregation Separation is when individuals prefer low levels of interaction with the host culture and associated microcultural groups while desiring a close connection with, and reaffirmation of, their native culture. If such separation is initiated and enforced by the dominant society, this is called segregation d. Marginalization (边缘化) Marginalization occurs when the individual chooses not to identify with his or her native culture or with the host culture.Stereotyping Stereotypes, found in nearly every intercultural situation, are a means of organizing our images into fixed and simple categories that we use to stand for the entire collection of people. The reason for the pervasive nature of stereotypes is that human beings have a psychological need to categorize and classify. Second, stereotypes also keep us from being successful as communicators because they are over-simplified, over-generalized, and/or exaggerated. They are based on half-truths, distortions, and often untrue premises and create inaccurate pictures of the people with whom we are interacting. Third, stereotypes tend to impede intercultural communication in that they repeat and reinforce beliefs until they often become taken for truth. For years, women were stereotypes as a rather one dimensional group. The stereotype of women as homemakers often keeps women from advancing in the workplace. Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism refers to the belief that one s culture is primary to all explanations of reality. We learn ethnocentrism very early in life, and primarily on the unconscious level. So it might be the major barrier to intercultural communication. The negative impact of ethnocentrism on intercultural communication is clearly highlighted by Steward and Bennett (Samovar, et al, 1998): Competent communication Competent communication is interactionthat is perceived as effective in fulfillingcertain rewarding objectives and is alsoappropriate to the context in which theinteraction occurs. Communication Competence Communication competence is a social judgment that people make about others. Intercultural Competence“The ability to become effective and appropriate in interacting across cultures” Intercultural communication competence Intercultural communication competence refers to the ability to accomplish effective and appropriate intercultural communication between communicators of different cultures. c. Attitudes Many attitudes contribute to intercultural communication competence, including tolerance for ambiguity, empathy, and nonjudgmentalness d. Behaviors and skills two levels of behavioral competence. The macro level includes many culture-general behaviors, then there is the micro level, at which these general behaviors are implemented in culture-specific ways. Contextual Components of Intercultural CompetenceContext refers to all the information in