Parallelism的结构特征及其语义特点.doc

Parallelism的结构特征及其语义特点张若兰(韩山师范学院外语系,广东潮州521041)摘要:文章从修辞和语法的角度,探讨了Parallelism的定义,并与汉语中的“排比”修辞格进行了比较。与此同时,文章还通过大量的例句,分析了Parallelism的结构特征及其所具有的语义特点。关键词:平行;结构特征;语义特点中图分类号: H315文件标识码: A文章编号: 1671-7023(2003)06-0099-05作者简介:张若兰(1957),女,湖南邵阳人,韩山师范学院外语系副教授,现为广东外语外贸大学访问学者,研究方向为社会语言学和跨文化交际。收稿日期: 2003-06-04亚里士多德(Aristotle384-22 B.C.)在其修辞学(Rhetoric)著作里曾开宗明义地指出:“修辞学与辩证法匹配所有的人几乎都要用到它们,因为每个人都要试图讨论问题,确立主张,保护自己,驳倒他人。”这一论述明确表明了修辞学的目的:它以语言的使用作为手段来影响读者和听者。而要深刻地影响读者和听者,在语义表达方面,必须词达意顺,层次分明,概括性强;在事理阐述方面,必须晓畅明白,精辟透彻,逻辑性强。Parallelism作为英语中一种富有表现力的修辞手法,以其鲜明独特的结构特征和语义特点,深深地吸引着读者和听者。一、关于Parallelism的定义以及与汉语中的“排比”修辞格的辨析英语Parallelism是一种“Parallelstructure”(平行结构),“它由结构和意义相似的短语或句子平行并列构成。”1(p.480-481)它是“为了达到修辞效果而循环出现的、句法相似的结构”2(p.831)。“在平行结构里,词与词之间,短语与短语之间,从句与从句之间,句子与句子之间必须保持平衡。如果两个或两个以上的句子结构相同或者非常相似,这种结构上的平行就把这些句子联系起来了。而且,这种联系由于词汇的等同和语义上的关联而进一步得到加强。”3(p.33)综合上述各家之言,Parallelism具有“结构相同,意义并重,语气一致”的特点。因此,有些学者将它译成“平行结构”4(p.153);有些学者将它译成“排比”。Parallelism译成“排比”,虽然与汉语中的“排比”有相似之处,但二者存在着明显的区别,这也是不容忽视的。汉语的“排比”始终是一个修辞术语,即修辞格名称。然而,英语中的Parallelism首先是个语法术语,意即“平行结构的使用”。有的专门讨论修辞的专著竟对此不予讨论;相反,有的语法专著(如Quirk et al, 1985)却花大量的篇幅对此加以讨论。实际上,作为语法术语的“Parallelism”与作为修辞术语的“Parallelism”是存在一定的差别的。语法上的“Parallelism”只着眼于语法结构的对称或平行,至于语义关系则不大关注。如:a:The child was pretty and had brains.b:The child was pretty and intelligent.句a虽无语法错误,但句子的谓语部分在语法结构上缺乏平行;句b中的pretty和intelligent两词都是形容词,在结构上构成“平衡”。下列各句都可视为语法层次上的Parallelism。(1)Man or boy, I don t like him. ( Quirket al,1985:255)(2)He came not to help, but to hinder us.(ibid, 941)( 3 ) The plan was opposed not byFrederick but by Maria. (ibid, 953)99(4)We should serve the coffee in a mugand the lemonade in a glass. (ibid, 974)(5)The baseball game was cancelled inNew Haven while the hockey match waspostponed in Hartford. (ibid, 1427)以上各例,从词、词组,到句子,表现了“Parallelism”在语法各层面上的应用。作为修辞上的“Parallelism”,同时亦称“Parison”5(p.113),更多的是关注“以取得文体效果的语言成分的安排和反复”(the arrangementfor stylistic effect)。因此,它又冠以“叠言”之称6(p.150),它甚至包括谐元音(Assonance)、头韵(Alliteration)、诗歌格律(Meter)、押韵(Rhyme)、同源反复(Paregmenon)等等。综上所述,Parallelism最典型的模式是二项式,即平行项数为2,而作为修辞格的Parallelism并不一定是3个或3个以上的语言单位并列7(p.441-445),如谚语“Out of sight, out ofmind”就是一个很好的例子。“用相似的形式把相似的意义成对匹配”(the pairing of similarideas by casting them into similarforms)8(p.360),这十分明确地规定了英语“Parallelism”的结构构成,即有两个平行项构成。如此下定义,当然未免过于绝对,比较客观的说法应该是通常由成对的或3项构成,当然也可能3项以上。不过,这类二项式平行结构还被专门称为“Double Parallelism”或“Coupling(联偶)”。由此可见,英语中二项式的“Parallelism”出现频率之高。而汉语中的“排比”,其排比项必须是3个或3个以上。这一点,在汉语学界几乎已成共识。“把对偶扩大一点,不单是用结构类似的句子或词组做成一对,而是做成一串,就成了排比”9(p.64)。所谓“偶”是成双作对的意思,“排”在这里可以理解为成排、一系列的意思,“成排”、“一系列”当然不止两项。因此可以说,“Parallelism”在语义上基本涵盖了汉语的对偶和排比的内容,但又各具特色,在句法上与对偶和排比又存在较大的差别。二、Parallelism的结构特征Parallelism的结构构成,大致有以下4种类型:单词的平行排列;短语的平行排列;从句的平行排列和句子的平行排列。1.单词的平行排列( 6 ) Cool was I and logical. Keen,calculating, perspicacious, acute andastute-I was all of these.( Max Shulman:Love is a Fallacy)(5个形容词平行)(7)He thought everybody lived far tooelaborately, expressively, anxiously. (GilbertHighet: Diogenes and Alexander)(3个副词平行)( 8 ) Page boys, soldiers, secretaries,officers, they all gradually formed a circlearound Diogenes. (Gilbert Highet: Diogenesand Alexander)(3个名词平行)( 9 ) True praise roots and spreads.(Proverb) (2个动词平行)2.短语的平行排列( 10 ) They knew his ignorance, hiscruelty, his avarice, his appetites and his sins.(J. Steinbeck : The Pearl) (5个名词短语平行)他们知道他的无知,他的残忍,他的贪婪,他的欲望,他的罪恶。(11)It is the same old story of not beinggrateful for what we have until we lose it, ofnot being conscious of health until we are ill.(Helen Keller: Three Days to See) (2个动名词短语平行)事情往往是这样:失后方知物可贵,病时才晓健康好。(12)Let every nation know, whether itwishes us well or ill, that we shall pay anyprice, bear any burden, meet any hardship,support any friend, oppose any foe to assuresurvival and the success of liberty. (JohnKennedy: Inaugural Address)(5个动词短语平行)必须让每一个友邦和敌国都知道:为维护自由,使其长存不灭,我们将会不惜付出任何代价,肩负任何重担,迎战一切困难,援助一切朋友,反击一切敌人。(13)We shall fight him by land, we shallfight him by sea, we shall fight him in the air.(Winston S. Churchill: Speech on Hitler sInvasion of the U.S.S.R.)(3个介词短语平行)我们将对他实施地面打击,我们将对他1002003年第6期实施海上打击,我们将对他实施空中打击。(14)Some books are to be tasted, othersto be swallowed, and some few to be chewedand digested.( Francis Bacon: Of Studies) (3个不定式短语平行)书有浅尝者,有可吞食者,少数则须咀嚼和消化。(15)Whenever he went dodging about thevillage, he was surrounded by a troop of them,hanging on his skirts, clambering on his back,and playing a thousand tricks on him withimpunity. ( Washington Irving: Rip VanWinkle ) (3个分词短语平行)每当他在村子里转悠的时候,总是被一群人围着。他们或紧抓着他的裙子,或爬在他的背上,或尽情地戏弄他。3.从句的平行排列(16)They vanish from a world where theywere of no consequence; where they achievednothing; where they were a mistake and afailure and a foolishness; where they have leftno sign that they had existed. (Noel Grove:Mark Twain-Mirror of America ) (4个定语从句平行)他们从世上消失了。在这里他们无足轻重、一事无成。他们的存在本身就是错误、就是失败、就是愚蠢。在这里他们没有留下任何足以表明他们曾存在过的痕迹。(17)I have observed that he was a simple-natured man; he was moreover, a kindneighbor and an obedient hen-packed husband.(Washington Irving: Rip Van Winkle ) (2个宾语从句平行)我发现他是个生性纯朴的人;他甚至是个和蔼可亲的邻居、温顺惧内的丈夫。( 18 ) What we say and what we dosomehow seem out of joint.(2个主语从句并列)不知怎的,我们所说的与我们所做的似乎有些脱节。(19)So if a man s wit be wandering, lethim study the mathematics; for indemonstrations, if his wit be called away neverso little, he must begin again. If his wit be notapt to distinguish or find difference, let himstudy the Schoolmen; for they arecyminisectores. If he be not apt to bear overmatters, and to call up one thing to prove andillustrate another, let him study the lawyerscases. ( Francis Bacon: Of Studies) (3个状语从句并列)如智力不集中,可令读数学,盖演题须全神贯注,稍有分散即须重演;如不能辨异,可令读经院哲学,盖是辈皆吹毛求疵;如不善求同,不善以一物阐证另一物,可令读律师之案卷。4.句子的平行排列(20)We shall never parley, we shall nevernegotiate with Hitler or any of his gang.(Winston S. Churchill: Speech on Hitler sInvasion of the U.S.S.R.)(两个句子平行)我们决不妥协,我们决不与希特勒及其帮凶谈判议和。(21)I came, I saw, I conquered. ( JuliusCaesar) ( 3个短句平行)我来了,我看到了,我征服了。(22)And therefore , if a man write little,he had need have a great memory; if he conferlittle, he had need have a present wit; and ifhe read little, he had need have much cunning,to seem to know that he doth not. ( FrancisBacon: Of Studies) (3个长句平行)因此,不常作笔记者须记忆力特强,不常讨论者须天资聪颖,不常读书者须欺世有术,始能无知显有知。三、Parallelism的语义特点具有美学特征的言语不是杂乱无章,而是井然有序,不是松散模糊,而是严谨清晰,不是繁琐冗长,而是精炼匀称。在Parallelism中,各排比项的排列具有一定的逻辑性和有序性,它能使言语严谨,层次分明,结构匀称,它能“壮文势,广文义”。用于说理,它可以把论点阐释得更严密、更透彻;用于抒情,它可以把情感抒发得更淋漓、更尽致。由于其独特的内部结构特征,在语义方面,各排比项之间呈现出3种关系:并列关系、比较对照关系及递进关系。1.各排比项之间具有并列关系通过排比项的层层排叠,增强语言气势。101华中科技大学学报社会科学版(23)With this faith we will be able to hewout of the mountain of despair a stone of hope.With this faith we will be able to transform thejangling discords of our nation into a beautifulsymphony of brotherhood. With this faith wewill be able to work together, to praytogether, to struggle together, to go to jailtogether, to stand up for freedom together,knowing that we will be free one day. (MartinLuther King, Jr.: I Have a Dream)怀着这个信念,我们就能够从绝望的大山中凿出一块希望的磐石。怀着这个信念,我们就将能够将我国不和谐的喧嚣之声,变为一首优美的友爱交响曲。怀着这个信念,我们就将能够一同工作,一同祈祷,一同斗争,一同入狱,一同争取自由。因为我们知道,终有一天我们将获得自由。(王寅译)(24)I have nothing to offer but blood,toil, tears and sweat. (Winston S. Churchill:Speech on Hitler s Invasion of the U.S.S.R.)我没有什么可以奉献,有的只是热血、辛劳、眼泪和汗水。例(23)是美国黑人民权领袖马丁路德金(Martin Luther King Jr.,19291968)于1963年8月28日在华盛顿举行的大规模黑人集会上所发表的演说我有一个梦想(IHave a Dream)。3个长句和5个不定式短语的齐整排列,体现出结构内部的并列关系,读来自然富有号召力、说服力和感染力,令人感情激越,思想升华。作者有意将“With this faith”重复3次,却丝毫没有斧凿的痕迹。相反,正是这种整齐的排列,使之字字珠矶,掷地有声,震耳欲聋。同时五个“to. together”排在一起有力地表明演说者誓为自由而浴血奋战的决心。例(24)是丘吉尔在英国面临入侵的危险之际出任首相后在下议院发表演说中的一句名言。他用“blood, toil, tears,sweat”4个意义相关的名词平行排列,表达了他在国家危急存亡之际,将不惜一切代价,誓死抵抗入侵者的坚强决心。这4个名词并行排列,铿锵有力,呈现出流畅生动、情感丰沛的的语势,具有强烈的感召力和震撼力。2.各排比项之间具有比较对照关系通过各排比项之间的比较或对照,突出重点,增强气势。(25)Read not to contradict and confute,nor to believe and talk for granted, nor to findtalk and discourse, but to weigh and consider.(Francis Bacon: Of Studies)读书不可存心吹毛求疵,不可尽信书中之论,亦不可为己言掠词夺句,而应该斟酌推敲,钩深致远。(曹明伦译)(26)It was the best of times, it was theworst of times; it was the age of wisdom, itwas the age of foolishness; it was the epoch ofbelief, it was the era of incredulity, it was theseason of Light, it was the season ofDarkness, it was the spring of Hope, it wasthe winter of Despair, we had everythingbefore us, we had nothing before us. (CharlesDickens: A Tale of Two Cities)这是最好的时代,也是最糟的时代;这是智慧的时代,也是愚蠢的时代;这是有信仰的时代,也是抱怀疑的时代;这是光明的季节,也是黑暗的季节;这是富有希望的春天,也是充满绝望的寒冬;我们拥有一切,又一无所有。(郭赛军译)在例(25)中,作者通过比较和对照,陈述了人们在读书过程中的不足之处,从而指出了正确的读书方法:书,不可不信,也不可全信,要辩证地吸取书中的养分。例(26)是英国著名小说家狄更斯所写双城记的开头部分。作者通过含有“好”与“糟”、“智慧”与“愚蠢”、“信仰”与“怀疑”、“光明”与“黑暗”、“希望”与“绝望”等相互对立意义的一系列句子,将当时欧洲错综复杂的社会现实以及那充满矛盾、动荡不安的社会局面呈现在读者面前。在展现社会现实的同时,作者试图表现这一点:一切人的行为,无论是高尚还是卑贱,相对于广袤的世界来说,都是微不足道的10(p.3566)。面对痛苦的现实,作者直抒胸臆,表达对道德的呼唤和对社会不公正的抗议。呼唤中浸透着种种无奈、抗议中暗含着丝丝彷徨。其饱含忧伤的无奈,充满愤慨的抗议是那样苍白无力。3.各排比项之间具有递进关系排比的各项在语义上层层递进,在气势上步步增强。(27) There is no reason for us to beenemies. Neither of us seeks the territory of1022003年第6期the other; neither of us seeks domination overthe other; neither of us stretches out handsand rules the world. (A Toast by PresidentNixon on His First Visit to China in 1972)我们没有理由成为敌人。我们双方都不想侵占对方的领土;我们双方都不想控制对方;我们双方都不想把手伸出,去统治世界。(英帆译)( 28 ) The merchant sold shoes, thepoliticians sold manhood, and therepresentative of the people, with exceptions,of course, sold his trust while nearly all soldtheir honor. (Jack London: What Life Meansto Me)商人兜售鞋子,政客兜售男子气,当然,人民的代表例外,兜售信誉,而几乎所有的人兜售荣誉。例(27)是美国总统尼克松1972年2月来华所作的答谢辞中的节选。原文运用3个排比句“neither of us.”构成语义上的层层递进,语势上的贯通酣畅,深刻地表明尼克松总统决心与中国人民一道共同创建一个和平稳定的世界的美好愿望和开创中美关系新局面的良好诚意。而例(28)则通过反复使用“sold.”这个动词短语,构成4个排比句,使之意义鲜明,铿锵有力,从而使杰克伦敦对资本主义社会人情的淡薄和世态的炎凉的愤懑之情力透纸背。Parallelism在句法结构上具有均衡(well-balanced)的节奏美,在语义效果上具有强烈(weighty)的语势美。它美妙的节奏,如动人心弦的旋律,深深地吸引着听众;它磅礴的气势,如飞流直下的江河,强烈地震撼着读者。它以其言语的表现力、艺术的感染力、雄辩