二、Chapter Two The History of Instructional Technology.doc

Chapter Two The History of Instructional TechnologySection A Pre-1920One of the fundamental ideas supporting instructional technology is the ideas that empirically based principles be applied to generate predictably effective instruction (Anglin, 1995, p.12). While many contributions could be listed here as important in shifting the prevailing concept of instruction, the work of E.L. Thorndike, a behavioral psychologist at Columbia University, was perhaps most influential and particularly salient for the field of instructional technology. Thorndike is important as an early figure in the effort to establish a scientific knowledge base for the research of human learning, especially for instructional technology.支持教学技术的一个基本观念是基于经验主义原则，这些原则能产生明显有效的教学。美国哥伦比亚大学的行为主义心理学家桑代克对教学技术这一领域可能是最有权威和尤其重要的。作为较早致力于为人类学习研究，特别是教学技术建立科学的知识的人物，桑代克是非常重要的。The other idea supporting instructional technology is the theory of progressivism. This is a theory that lies within the matrix of teaching philosophies and it is the most relevant to the field. Progressivism proposes that experience is the key to understanding and “the most important power the individual possesses is his capacity to share in experience by attacking the myriad problems that it presents with the instrumentality of his natural intelligence” (Brameld, 1971, p.5).This should be the model that the field of instruction technology follows.支持教学技术的另外一个观念是进步主义理论。这个理论是建立在教学哲学基础之上的，它是与这个领域最相关的。进步主义认为经验是理解的关键，同时“个人拥有的最重要的力量是他可以共享的经验才能，这些经验解决了由于先天智力手段引起的无数问题”（布拉梅尔德，1971）。这应该是教学技术这一领域应该遵循的模式。In the early days, the audio instructions and audiovisual instructions were seen as acting as an antidote (解药，矫正法) to the excessive verbalism of traditional teaching methods (Wittich and Schuller,1953). The new media used in instruction supporting the experience were to supply a concrete basis for conceptual thinking, make learning more permanent, develop continuity of thought, the growth of meaning and efficiency, depth, and variety of learning(Dale,1954).在早期，听觉教学和视听教学被看作是传统教学方法过度“言语主义”这一问题的解决方法（威蒂克，舒勒）。应用在教学中支持经验主义的新媒体为概念思维提供了有形的基础，使教学更加持久，促进了思维的连续性，促进了学习的意义、效率、深度、种类的增长。Section B 1920s-1940sThe audiovisual movement can be traced back to the early 1900s when schools and museums began using visuals such as drawings, paintings, slides, films objects and models to compliment verbal instruction. 1918 through 1928 showed tremendous growth in the visual instruction movement with formal course offerings, the formation of professional organizations and journals, research studies, and the formation of administrative units all in the area of visual education. A few example include: (1) The National Academy for Visual Instruction (视觉教学国家科学院) was formed in 1919, (2) The American Educational Motion Picture (美国教育电影) was also formed in 1919, (3) The Department of Visual Instruction (DVI) was established in 1923, (4) The Visual Instruction Association of America（美国视觉教学协会） was organized in 1922(Maier, n. d.).During this period, several major events influenced the future development of audiovisual movement, and one of them is the behavioral objectives movement. Among those earlier advocates of the use of clearly stated objectives (明确的目标) were Bobbitt, Charters, and Burk. However, Ralph Tyler has often been considered the father of the behavioral objectives movement. In 1933, directed by Tyler, the Eight Year Study was launched from The Ohio State University. The Eight Year Study is notable as part of the history of instructional technology for two reasons. First, the study refined(精炼) the procedures for writing instructional objectives. Secondly, the study ensured the implementation of alternative curriculum as planned and the objectives and their assessment were used to revise (修订；复习) and refine the curriculum (Resier, 2001).The other major event is the work of the media personnel and psychologist in the military agent during World 2. WW2 leads to production of thousands of training films, photos, audio recordings, silent film, etc. for Division of Visual Aids for War Training in US Office of Education（战争培训视觉教具部）n. With the development of mediated instruction, another role emerged, that is the instructional technologist which is distinct from subject matter expert(主体问题专家，SME).Today, we can find many classic book or articles in the history of instructional technology were written during this period. In 1937, Charles F. Hoban, Sr., Charles F. Hoban, Jr. and S.B. Zisman publish their book, Visualizing the Curriculum (课程的视觉化). In 1945, a forerunner of the field, W. W. Charters wrote the paper titled Is There a Field of Educational Engineering, which was published in Education Research Bulletin (期刊，小报), Volume 24, Number 2. In 1946, Edger Dale published Audio Visual Methods in Teaching(教学中的视听方法), and in this book he proposed the famous concept of Cone of Experience, Which became one of the core theories of the field.The cone of experience served as (充当，担任) a visual analogy（直观类比） for levels of concreteness (具体性)and abstractness of teaching methods and instructional materials. The purpose of the cone was to represent a range of experience from direct experience to symbol. Dales cone of experience melded the educational theory of John Dewey and ideas in vogue in psychology at that time. The cone of experience was first attempt to build a rationale that involved learning theory and audio visual communications.Section C 1950s-1970s1948 through 1968 witnessed great changes in the field. At this stage, television and other new media were widely used. Programmed instruction and task analysis appeared and prevailed (流行). The theories of communications, general system and cognitive psychology were introduced into the field. The issue (问题，议题) of professionalization of the field was proposed by the professionals. Instructional systems design (ISD) originated. Based on all the above mentioned, the terminology of the field changed and the field shifted from Audiovisual Instruction to Instructional Technology.The first teaching machine was invented by Sydney L. Pressey (Sattler, 1990, p.294), but it was not until the 1950s that practical methods of programming were developed. In 1954, programmed instruction was reintroduced by B. F. Skinner, a behavioral psychologist of Harvard University, who became famous for his work with operant conditioning and reinforcement using the ”Skinner box”. In his 1954 article, The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching, Skinner advocated for the Teaching Machine as an instructional tool that reinforced student learning (Skinner, 1954).Programmed instruction is a method of presenting new subject matter to students in a graded sequence of controlled steps. Students work through the programmed material by themselves at their own speed and after each step test their comprehension by answering an examination question filling in a diagram. They are then immediately shown the correct answer or given additional information.Although there has been considerable controversy( kntrv:si，争论，辩论) regarding the merits of programmed instruction as the sole method of teaching, many educators agree that it can contribute to more efficient classroom procedure and supplement conventional teaching methods. And the roots of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) can be traced back to programmed instruction (Callender, 1969).In 1962, Robert Glaser（罗伯特格拉泽） employed the term Instructional System and discussed its components (Glaser, 1962, pp. 1-30). In 1965, Robert M. Gagne published The Condition of Learning which elaborates ( Ilbreit, 详细制定，详细说明) the analysis of learning objectives and relates different classed of learning objectives to appropriate instructional designs (Gagne, 1965). Activities of the 1970s were a logical outgrowth of the path-breaking ideas(具有开创性的思想) proposed in the 1960s. In 1970s, numbers of instructional design models emerged, including the Dick and Carey Model (Dick and Carey, 1978), and instructional design approached to maturation. Later, in 1974, with L. J. Briggs (布里格斯), Gagne published Principles of Instructional Design. As milestones, the two books set the ground for instructional design.From 1950s to 1970s, another important trend affecting the evolution of the field was the theories of communications and general system was introduced to the field.In 1949, Claude E. Shannon (克劳德E香农) and Warren Weaver（沃伦韦弗） published the book, Mathematical Theory of Communication, and proposed a model for communication in this book. Almost every communication model which has been used in relation to instructional technology is derived from model. At about the same time, Harold Lasswell (哈罗德拉斯韦尔) proposed “Five Ws model”. From the ideas of Shannon and Weaver and Lasswell, Wilbur Schramm (威尔伯施拉姆) developed his approach to communications. Schramm developed several communication models and identified six ways to categorize delivery system.When the general system theory was introduced into the field, Charles Hoban (查尔斯霍本), Jr. and James. Finn（Jr.和詹姆斯芬恩） were regarded as the two most influential contributors. In his 1956 presentation, Hoban first recognized that the field was a system. And in 1960s, Finn published his series of articles in Audiovisual Communication Review. Finn viewed systems as necessary characteristics of automation and technology and applied systems concepts to instructional planning and delivery and emphasized the man-machine systems of instruction.Based on the theories, the professionals in the field offered a focus on the process and on the systematic organization of diverse elements in instructional settings. (基于上述这些理论，领域内的专业人士开始越来越关注过程以及对教学情境中多种要素的系统化组织。)While these changes were taking place, leaders among education professional who had considered themselves primarily media specialists began to lobby (讨论，游说) actively to broaden the field of audiovisual instruction to embrace the larger concept of instructional technology. Finn, Arthur Lumsdaine (阿瑟拉姆斯丹尼), and other leaders talked about the proper name for the field. In 1970, DAVI Board of Director（董事会） changed the organization name from the Department of Audiovisual Instruction to the Association for Educational Communications and Technology. And more and more professionals preferred instructional technology or educational technology to audiovisual instruction when they referred to the field.Section C 1980s-PresentBy the early 1980s, a few years after microcomputers became available to the general public, the enthusiasm surrounding this tool led to increasing interest in using computers for instructional purposes (Anglin, 1995, p.17).Since 1990s, rapid advances in computer and other digital technology, as well as Internet, have led to a rapidly increasing interest in, and use of, these media for instructional purposes, particularly in training in business and industry.In the past few years, computers, the Internet and other digital technology have often been used to promote learning and performance via (通过，凭借) some “nontraditional” means. Electronic performance support systems, knowledge management systems, and learner-centered learning environments often serve as alternatives to training or direct instruction.Another factor that affected the field during the 1980spresent was the growing interest in constructivism (Riser, 2001, p.63). In the view of a constructivist, we all