语言学复习定稿.doc

第一章 语言学导论语言语言的定义（P2）语言的特点语言的起源摹声说感叹说杭育说语言学（P14）语言学定义语言学分支（理论分法） 音系学 形态学 句法学 语用学语言学重要区分（P19）共时与历时语言与言语语言能力与语言应用Language: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of human language:l Arbitrariness(任意性): refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)l Duality（二层性）: The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.l Productivity/Creativity (创造性): Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.l Displacement(移位性): Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication. (p7)Theories on language origin The followings are referenced to the textbookl The “bow-wow” TheoryOnomatopoeia seems to be a convincing evidence of the theory. But how to explain those dont sound like the original sounds in the wild environment?l The “pooh-pooh” TheoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy. But there is only a limited number of interjections in almost all languages. And some interjections like Oh, Ah bear little relationship with the sound system of a language.l The “yo-he-ho” TheoryWhen the primitive people worked hard, they produced some rhythmical grunts.The followings are referenced to PPTl Divine-origin TheoryAccording to the Bible, “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.” (Gospel of John, 1:1)l The invention theory:l The evolutionary:Language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contexts.Linguistic Linguistic is the scientific study of language.The branches of linguisticsPhonetics: which includes three levels: Articulatory phonetics, Acoustic phonetics, Auditory phonetics.Phonology: the rules governing the structure,distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables)Morphology: It studies the minimal units of meaning and word-formation processes.Syntax: the rules governing the combination of words into sentence.Semantics: the meaning of language (when the meaning of language is conducted in the context of language use-Pragmatics)Pragmatics: the study of meaning in contextthe study of the use of signs and the relationship between signs and their users. Some important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive vs. Prescriptive 描写与规定l Descriptive (描写/述性 ) describe and analyze linguistic facts or the language people actually use (modern linguistic)l Prescriptive (规定性) lay down rules for “ correct and standard ” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar: “ never use a double negative”)Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时与历时l Synchronic study (共时) description of a language at some point of time (e.g. modern linguistics)l Diachronic study (历时) description of a language as it changes through time (e.g. historical development of language over a period of time)Langue vs. Parole 语言与言语l Langue The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.l Parole The realization of language in actual useCompetence vs. performance 语言能力与语言应用l Competence The ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language.l Performance The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.第二章 语音发音辅音定义（P29）发音位置与方式。塞音擦音赛擦音双唇音唇齿音齿间音音系学音位（P39）音位变体音的同化（P42） 超音段特征音节（P49）PronunciationConsonants The manner of articulation The place of articulationstops/plosives: p, b, t, d, k, g;fricatives: f, v, s, z, W, T, F, V, h;affricates: tF, dV; bilabial: p, b, m, w;labiodental: f , v;dental: W, T;PhonologyPhoneme and AllophoneA phoneme- is a phonological unit; it is the smallest distinctive unit in the sound system of a language.e.g. tea; tooAllophones - the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. p, ph are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context: p occurs after s while ph occurs in other places. Assimilation Assimilation -a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, e.g. the prefix in is pronounced differently when in different phonetic contexts: indiscreet alveolar In inconceivable velar IN input bilabial ImExerciseassimilation rulesVoiced fricative voiceless/ voicelessThis is a phonological rule: “becomes” / “in the environment of ” _ “ focus bar: the location of the change or the position of the target segment” The rule reads: voiced fricatives are transformed into voiceless fricatives before voiceless segments.How to read the following rules?1 A B/_ C A becomes B before C2 A B/C_ A becomes B after C3 A B/C_ D A becomes B between C and Dnasalization dentalization and velarizationNasalization rule- nasal + nasal/_ + nasalDentalization rule- dental+ dental/_ + dentalVelarization rule- velar+ velar/_ + velarSyllableAncient Greek: a unit of speech sound consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant.Dictionary: word or part of a word which contains a vowel sound or consonant acting as a vowel.Open syllable: bar, tieClosed syllable: bard, tiedEnglish Syllable: (C)C)C)V(C)C)C)C)Chinese syllable: (C)V(C)e.g. “split”, “sixths” and “prompts”. “您好，请问河南工业大学在哪里？”第三章 词汇词的分类（P58）可变化词和不可变化词语法词汇和词汇词封闭类词和开放类词词类助词助动词代词限定词语素语素的定义语素类型自由语素和黏着语素词根，词缀和词干曲折词缀和派生词缀曲折变化和词的形成P73l 曲折变化l 词的形成（P73）n 复合n 派生n 其他u 合成u 缩略u 逆构词法Classification of wordsVariable and invariable wordsVariable words: write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats.Invariable words: since, when, seldom, through, etc.Grammatical and lexical wordsGrammatical/Function words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, eg pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.Open-class words: New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. beatnik, hacker, email, internet, “做秀， 玉米，雷人” in Chinese.Word classWord class: known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar. Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc.Some new terms in word class:Particle: infinitive to, negative not, subordinate units in phrasal verbs “get by”, “look back”, etc.Auxiliary: do, have, can, will, may, must, etc.Pro-forms: substitutes for other terms.Pronoun: he, she, I, they, everyonePro-adjective: Your car is red. So is his.Pro-verb: He speaks English better than he did.Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I hope so too.Pro-locative: He went there.Determiner: all the articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers that appear before the noun and its modifiers. As many as three determiners may be used in each case and there is a fixed order when there is more than one.MorphemesMorphemes: The smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free vs. Bound morphemes: Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation.Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Root, affix and stemRoot: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, eg friend as in unfriendliness. Roots may be free: those that can stand by themselves, eg black+board; nation+-al; orbound: those that cannot stand by themselves, eg -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.Affix: a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided into prefix (dis-, un-) suffix (-en, -ify)infix (goose/geese)Stem :A stem is any morpheme or combination of morpheme to which an inflectional affix can be added. eg friendship+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-es.This shows a stem can be equivalent to a root or may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.Notice the differences between inflectional and derivational affix希望多留心下曲折变化和派生词法，容易混淆。Word formation (the followings were referred in class)CompoundTwo or more free roots combine to make a new word.Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmillVerb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysitAdjective compounds: gray-haired, insect-eating, dutyfreePreposition compounds: into, throughoutBlending is to create a word by combining parts of two already existing words.smoke+fogsmogbreakfast+lunch brunchchinese+english chinglishmodulator+demodulatormodemAcronym is made up from the first letters of word groups in science, politics, and other special fields.VOAUNESCOWTOAidsInvention/CoinageMostly brand names: Kodak, Coke, nylon, Band-aid, Xerox, LycraBackformation,a process opposite to affixation, provides new words by substracting part of the old word that is mistaken for an affix. It is created often from mere ignorance.peddlerpeddlelaserlaseeditoreditair-conditioningair-conditiontelevision televise第四章 句法向心和离心结构（P89）递归性（P101）Endocentric and Exocentric ConstructionsEndocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head. Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.Exocentric constructionrefers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including:the basic sentence, the prepositional phrase, the predicate (verb + object) construction, and the connective (be + complement) construction.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; egself-control: a kind of controlarmchair: a kind of chairExocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, egscarecrow: not a kind of crowbreakneck: not a kind of neckRecursivenessRecursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, and also it has become an umbrella term of important linguistic phenomena such as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic. 第五章 意义指称论（P105）语义三角涵义关系（P108）同义关系反义关系等级反义关系互补反义关系反向反义关系上下义关系Sense and Reference Sense- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference-what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. Ogden and Richards: semantic triangle Proposed by Ogden & Richards in their “The Meaning of Meaning”in 1923. They saw the relationship between the word and the thing it refers to is not direct. Its mediated by concept.Sense RelationsSynonymySynonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 1) Dialectal synonyms- synonyms used in different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol gasoline 2) Stylistic synonyms-synonyms differing in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning, e.g.collaborator- accomplice,4) Collocational synonyms, e.g. accuseof, chargewith, rebukefor; AntonymyGradable antonymy-there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, Complementary antonymy-the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, Converse antonymy (relational opposites)-exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, Hyponymy-the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.Superordinate上坐标词: the word which is more general in meaning.Hyponyms下义词: the word which is more specific in meaning.Superordinate: flowerHyponyms: rose, tulip, lily, chrysanthemum, peony, narcissus, Superordinate: furnitureHyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, sofa, 第八章 语言的使用言语行为理论（P186）发话行为行事行为取效行为会话含义理论合作原则数量质量关系方式准则的违反Speech act theorySpeech acts is a term derived from the work of the philosopher J. L. Austin (1962) and now used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?” Cooperative PrincipleFour maxims of CPThe maxim of quantity-Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.-Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.The maxim of quality-Do not say what you believe to be false.-Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of relation-Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant).The maxim of manner-Avoid obscurity of expression.-Avoid ambiguity.-Be brief.-Be orderly.Violation of the maxims (Quantity)1. Make your contribution as informative as is required. A: 昨天上街买了些什么?B: 就买了些东西。 I dont want to tell you what I bought.Dear Sir, Mr. Xs command of English is excellent, and his attendance at tutorials has been regular. Yours Mr. X is not suitable for the job.A: Your kid broke the window.B: Boys are boys. Boys are naughtyWar is war. War is cruel 2. Do not make your contribution more informative