采矿专业英语第一二章.docx

李露露（第一章） 郑迪（第二章）P5Unit 1 Geology, Surveying and Feasibility Studies地质、测量及可行性研究1.1 Mineral Exploration 地质勘探Mineral exploration is the process undertaken by companies, partnerships. or corporations in the endeavour of finding ore ( commercially viable concentrations of minerals) to mine. Mineral exploration is a much more intensive, organised and professional form of mineral prospecting and though it frequently uses the services of prospecting, the process of mineral exploration on the whole is much more involved.Stages of mineral exploration are includes ：1. Area SelectionArea selection is a crucial step in professional mineral exploration. Selection of the best, most prospective, area in a mineral field, geological region or terrain will assist in making it not only possible to find ore deposits, but to find them easily, cheaply and quickly.Area selection is based on applying the theories behind ore genesis, the knowledge of known ore occurrences and the method of their formation, to known geological regions via the study of geological maps，to determine potential areas where the particular class of ore deposit being sought may exist. Oftentimes new styles of deposits may be found which reveal opportunities to find lookalike deposit styles in rocks and terranes previously though unprospective，which may result in a process of of leases in similar geological settings based on this new model ormethodology.This process applies the disciplines of basin modeling, structural geology. geochronology, petrology and a host of geophysical and geochemical disciplines to make predictions and draw parallels between the known ore deposits and their physical form and the unknown potential of finding a “lookalike” within the area selected.P7prospecting for tungsten mineralisation.4.Remote SensingAerial photography is an important tool in assessing mineral rxploralion tenements, as it gives the explorer orientation informationlocation of tracks, roads, fences, habitation, as well as ability to at least qualitatively map outcrops and regolith systematics and vegetation cover across a region.Satellite based spectroscopes allow the modem mineral explorationist, in regions devoid of cover and vegetation, to map minerals and alteration directly. Improvements in the resolution of modem commercially based satellites have also improved the utility of satellite imagery. For instance, IKONOS satellite images can be generated with a 30cm pixel size.5.Geochemical MethodsThe primary role of geochemistry, here used describe assaying or geological media，in mineral exploration is to find an area anomalous in the ommodity sought，or in elements known to be associated with the type of mineralisation sought.Regional geochemical exploration has traditionally involved use of stream sediments to target potentially mineralised catchments. Regional surveys may use low sampling densities such as one sample per 100 square kilometres. Follow-up geochemical surveys commonly use soils as the sampling media,possibly via the collection of a grid of samples over the tenement or areas which are amenable to soil geochemistry. Areas which are covered by transported soils, alluvium, colluvium or are disturbed too much by human activity ( roads，rail，farmland)，may need to be drilled to a shallow depth in order to sample undisturbed or unpolluted bedrock.Once the geochemical analyses are returned，the data is investigated for anomalies (single or multiple elements) that may be related to the presence of mineralisation. The geochemical anomaly is often field checked against the outcropping geology and in modem geochemistry, normalised against the regolith type and landform to reduce the effects of weathering, transported materials and landforms.Geochemical anomalies may be spurious, or related to low-grade or subgrade mineralisation. In order to determine if this is the case, geochemical anomalies must be drilled in order to test them for the existence of economic concentrations of mineralisation, or even to determine why they exist in the place they exist.The presence of some chemical elements may indicate the presence of a certainP8mineral Chemical analysis of rocks and plants may indicate the presence of an underground deposit. For instance elements like arsenic and antimony are associated with gold deposits and hence, are example pathfinder elementssampled for pathfinder elements in order to help locate deposits.6.Resource EvaluationResource evaluation is undertaken to quantify the grade and tonnage of a mineral occurrence. This is achieved primarily by drilling to sample the prospective horizon,lode or strata where the minerals of interest occur.The ultimate aim is to generate a density of drilling sufficient to satisfy the economic and statutory .standards of an ore resource. Depending on the financial situation and size of the deposit and the structure of the company，the level of detail required to generate this resource and stage at which extraction can commence varies.For small partnerships and private non-corporate enterprises a very low level of detail is required whereas for corporations which require debt equity ( loans) to build capital intensive extraction infrastructure, the rigor necessary in resource estimation is far greater. For large cash rich companies working on small ore bodies，they may work only to a level necessary to satisfy their internal risk assessments before extraction commences.Resource estimation may require pattern drilling on a set grid, and in the case of sulfide minerals，will usually require some form of geophysics such as down-hole probing of drillholes , to geophysicallyi delineate ore body continuity within the ground.The aim of resource evaluation is to expand the known size of the deposit and mineralisation. A scoping study is often carried out on the ore deposit during this stage to determine if there may be enough ore at a sufficient grade to warrant extraction; if there is not further resource evaluation drilling may be necessary. In other cases,several smaller individually uneconomic deposits may be socialised into a “mining camp” and extracted in tandem. Further exploration and testing of anomalies may berequired to find or define these other satellite deposits.7.Reserve DefinitionReserve definition is undertaken to convert a mineral resource into an ore reserve, which is an economic asset. The process is similar to resource evaluation, except more intensive and technical, aimed at statistically quantifying the grade continuity and mass.P9Reserve definition also takes into account the milling and characteristics the ore，and generates bulk samples for metallurgical testwork, involving crushability, floatability and other ore recovery parameters.Reserve definition includes geotechnical assessment and engineering studies of the rocks within and surrounding the deposit to determine the potential instabilities of proposed open pit or underground mining methods. This process may involve drilling diamond core samples to derive structural information on weaknesses within the rock mass such as faults, foliations, joints and shearing.At the end of this process, a feasibility study is published, and the ore deposit may be either deemed uneconomic or economic.Vocabularyprospecting n.探矿terrain n.地形，地面，地域，地带target generation靶区圈定structural geology构造地质学geochronology n.地球年代学petrology n.岩石学geophysical adj.地球物理学的geochemical adj.地球化学的mapping n.素描alluvium n.冲积层，淤积层gravity n.万有引力；地心引力；重力magnetism n.磁性，磁学electromagnetism n电磁，电磁学airborne magnetometer机载磁强计magnetite n.磁铁矿pyrrhotite n.磁黄铁矿ilmenite n.钛铁矿geophysical prospecting地球物理探测法ultraviolet adj.(光）紫外的remote sensing遥感，遥测regolith n.风化层，土被apectroscope n.分光镜P10pixel n.像素sediment n.沉淀物colluvium n.崩积层bedrock n.基岩landform n.地形low-grade低品位arsenic n.砷antimony n.锑strata n.地层warrant vt.使有必要；使恰当；保证；担保fault n.断层foliation n.页理，生叶joint n.节理shearing n.剪切，切割1.2 Mine Valuation Studies 矿床资源评佔As noted in the introduction to this section, the term mine valuation implies the assigning of a dollar or other currency value to the worth of a mine or mining project and provides a measure of the desirability of ownership of that property. As such, several types of value may be encountered in performing a mine valuation study. Theseare ：(1 ) Market value.(2) Full cash value.(3 ) Salvage value.(6) Replacement value.(5 ) Capitalized value.(1) Book value. 7 ) Assessed value.(8 ) Insured value.Each of these has a specific meaning that can he applied to determine a monetary amount in a specific situation.Of interest in this paper is the broader question of “ what is the value of themine? or“ What is the mine worth?” in this context the value of interest is the marketP12example here is with ad valorem property taxes,levied by most state and localgovernments. The difficulty with value estimation of a mineral property for taxation purposes is that a single value is required for property worth.Most states have enacted tax provisions that attempt to approximate the value of a mineral property through a formula or other mechanism that rarely serves as an adequate measure of property value for an actual sale. These mechanisms are seldom based on strong economic foundations and only serve as a convenient proxy for mineral property values. As a result，significant discrepancies can occur between the appraised value of a property for tax purposes and the value as perceived in the marketplace.(7) FinancingThe mode, mechanism, and magnitude of financing new mining properties or ventures are functions of the estimated property or project value. Certainly, the risk of default must also be considered in mining and must be assessed in regard to the perceived intrinsic value of the property. This aspect is becoming increasingly important in view of the popularity of international joint ventures as a means of dispersing project risks.The fundamental concern of lending institutions is not whether a specific rate of return is achieved by the project owner, but rather that the project will generate adequate cash flows to service the acquired debt. Thus lenders approach mine valuation studies from a different perspective.(8) Regulatory RequirementsEven the federal government has found it necessary tothe problemsiated with estimating the value of federally controlled mineral lands. This results from the fact that the leasing of federal lands for some mineral commodities is through the competitive bidding process, and the government is obligated by law to accept no bid that is less than the fair market value of the mineral occurrence. As a result，the federal government is often required to estimate the value of certain leases prior to competitive bidding in order to assure that bonus bids and royalty provisions represent fair market value and are therefore acceptable. The federal government is faced with a similar valuation problem when determining or negotiating royalty provisions on other leased minerals.assocP13Vocabularyduress n. 强迫,监禁salvage value 剩余价值replacement value 折旧后价值capitalized value 资产总值book value 资产原值insured value 账面价值pertain vi. 关于；有关；存在；适用acquisition n. 并购；获得；得到transpire vi (事实，秘密等）被人知道，泄露，显露；发生valorem adv. 按价，按照价格（价值）；计税(9) Mine Feasibility Studies 矿山可行性研究Feasibility studies are the heart of the mine evaluation process. A feasibility study of a mining project represents an engineering/ economic appraisal of the commercial viability of that project. As such，it is the result of a relatively formal procedure for assessing the various relationships that exist among the factors that directly or indirectly affect the project in question. In essence, the objective of a feasibility study is to clarify the basic factors that govern the chances for project success. Once all the factors relative to the project have been defined and studied, an attempt is made to quantify as many variables as possible in order to arrive at a potential value or worth of the property.As a mining project progresses from raw exploration through to the time when a management decision is made to develop and mine the property，a number of analyses will be conducted on the property，each of which will be based on increasing amounts of data, will require increasing amounts of time ( and therefore expense) to prepare, and will have increasing degrees of accuracy. For example, as exploration occurs on a mining property, the intersection of mineralization by a few drillholes typically triggers lhe need for some type of initial analysis to assist with necessary decision making. Ihese types of studies are identified by various names, but in each case they are designed to answer questions pertaining to ：P141) What magnitude of deposit might exist rather than what is known to exist2) Should further expenditures be incurred to look for what might exist3) Should the project be abandoned.4) What additional effort and/or expense is necessary before making any of these decisions?Assuming a favorable decision for continuation of the project ,the next sequence of decisions must be predicated on studies utilizing much more detailed information. These so-called prefeasibility studies or intermediate economic studies are based on increasing amounts of data pertaining to geologic information，preliminary engineering designs and plans for mining and processing facilities, and initial estimates of project revenues and costs. They are constructed to support a continuum of decisions relating to the next major spending requirement. Intermediate economic studies of this type typically contain the following information and analysis (Gocht et al.1988)：(1) Project description：geographic area, existing access routes, topography, climate，project history，concessionary terms，schedule for development of mine and any processing facilities.(2) Geology：regional geology, detailed description of the project area，preliminary reserve calculations, plans for detailed target evaluation.(3) Mining：geometry of the ore body，proposed mining plan ( and alternatives)， required plant and equipment.(4) Processing：technical descriptions of the ore and concentrate, processing facilities.(5) Other operating needs：availability of energy, water, spare parts, and equipment (diesel oil, explosives, replacement parts，etc.)(6) Transportation：description of the additional, necessary transportation facilities (roads，air strips，bridges, harbors, rail lines)(7) Towns and related facilites：housing for workers, school for children of workers,medical facilities, company offices.(8) Labor requirements： estimates of work force broken down according to qualifications (skills) and local availability.(9) Environmental protection：plans to reduce or minimize environmental damage，description of relevant environmental legislation.(10) Legal considerations：review of mining laws, taxation, foreign-investmentP15regulations and political risk.(11) Economic analysis ： cost estimates for plant and equipment，infrastructure materials, labor, market analysis, including production, consumption, and price formation for the relevant minerals, revenue forecasts based on expected production and mineral prices, cash flow and net present value analysis, sensitivity analysis.Assuming the project continues to appear favorable throughout the intermediate economic studies, as these studies progressively focus more on engineering and economic aspects and less on geologic parameters, the project must be formally assessed through a comprehensive feasibility study. The feasibility study represents a detailed analysis of all the parameters contained in the intermediate economic studies, along with other pertinent factors relating to political and legal aspects affecting project viability. Specific data requirements for incorporation into feasibility studies are contained in the following segment of this paper； however, in general, the study contains analyses of the projects geology and deposit characteristics，mineralogy, mineral processing characteristics，designs and plans for mining and processing equipment requirements, construction schedules, investment requirements and timing, estimates of revenues and costs, marketing plans, cash flow calculations, sources and methods of financing, and risk and sensitivity analyses of important project variables. As stated previously，the purpose of the feasibility study is to assess the technical and economic viability of the project and to assist the organization in making the “go/nogo” decision regarding project development.Although there is no prescribed format for reporting the results of a project feasibility study, the final report must fulfill the following essential functions ( Taylor,1977)(1) Provide a comprehensive framework of established and detailed facts concerning the mineral project.(2) Present an appropriate scheme of exploitation complete with plans, designs, equipment lists, etc.，in sufficient detail for accurate cost estimation and associated economic results.(3) Indicate the most likely profitability on investment in the project，assuming the project is equipped and operated as specified in the report.(4) Provide an assessment of pertinent legal factors，financing alternatives，fiscal regimes, environmental regulations, and risk and sensitiv