Phonetics语义学.doc

1. Phonetics1.1 Speech sounds1.2 Definition and branches 1.3 Speech organs1.4 English consonants1.5 English vowels1.6 IPA1.7 Broad / narrow transcription1.1 Speech soundsHuman beings are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the Language system.Only those sounds produced by speech organs of human beings to convey meanings for communication are concerns of linguists.These sounds are called speech sounds.1.2 Definition and branches1.2.1 Definition Phoneticsthe study of speech sounds.1.2.2 Three branches The study of speech sounds is divided into three main areas, each dealing with onepart of he process.Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) the study of the production of speech sounds. (from the perspective of the speaker)Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) the study of the perception of speech sounds. (from the perspective of the hearer)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. (from the perspective of sounds themselves)1.3 Speech organs1.3.1 Pulmonic egressive airstream mechanismAll speech sounds are produced with an airstream as their sources of energy.The airstream is forced out of the lung, then passes through the mouth and sometimes through the nose.Since lung air is usedpulmonic soundsSince air is pushed outegressive sounds1.3 Speech organsPharyngeal cavity (咽腔)Oral cavity (口腔)Nasal cavity (鼻腔)1.3.3 Vocal cords voiced sounds/voiceless sounds Voiced sounds (浊音) If vocal cords are held together, the airstream from the lung has to force its way through, and thus causes vocal cords to vibrate. In English, all vowels and some consonants are voiced sounds.1.3.3 Vocal cords voiced sounds/voiceless sounds Voiceless sounds (清音) If vocal cords are apart, the airsteam from the lung is not obstructed at the glottis,and it passes freely into the upper areas. In English, only a few consonants are voiceless sounds. 1.3.4 Velum oral sounds/nasal sounds Oral sounds (口腔音) If the velum is raised to touch the back of the throat, the passage through the nose is cut off, then the nasal passage is blocked in this way. So the air from the lung can escape only through the mouth. In English, all vowels and most consonants are oral sounds.1.3.4 Velum oral sounds/nasal sounds Nasal sounds (鼻腔音/鼻音) If the velum is lowered, the air can escape through the nose as well as the mouth. In English, only three consonants are nasal sounds: m n N . The state of vocal cords permits us to classify speech sounds into two classesvoicedsounds and voiceless sounds, and we can specify them with +voiced and -voiced respectively. Thus, one feature with two values voiced divides all sounds into two classes. The state of the velum permits us to classify speech sounds into two classesnasal soundsand oral sounds, and we can specify them with +nasal and -nasal respectively. Thus, one feature with two values nasal divides all sounds into two classes. Thus, the two features voiced nasal classify all speech sounds into four sets: +voiced, +nasal e.g. m n N +voiced, -nasal e.g. , d g -voiced, +nasal * -voiced, -nasal e.g. p t k1.3.5 Binary feature (二分特征) one feature with two values, which is a property used to describe a phoneme(音位) or a word,such as voiced and nasal.A binary feature is either present or absent. 1.4 English consonants * Every language of the world contains the two basic classes of speech sounds: consonants and vowels. * The distinction between the two is whether the flow of air from lung meets with obstruction or not. consonantswith obstruction vowelswithout obstruction1.4 English consonantsQ: d g +voiced, -nasal How to distinguish the three sounds?1.4.1 Places of articulation By moving the tongue and lips, we are able to change the shape of the oral cavity and produce different sounds. bilabial(双唇音): p m labiodental(唇齿音): f v interdental(齿间音): W T1.4 English consonantsalveolar(齿龈音): t d s z n l r the tip of the tongue is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge;Palatal(上腭音): F V tF dV j obstruction between the back of the tongue and the hard palate;Velar(软腭音): k g N back of tongue brought into contact with the soft palate, glottal(喉音): h vocal cords are brought together.1.4.2 Manners of articulation Once the airstream enter the oral cavity, it may be stopped, it may be partially obstructed, and thus different consonants are produced. stops(塞音): p, t d, and k g fricatives(擦音): f v s z F V W T h affricates(塞擦音): tF dV Liquids(流音): l r airflow first obstructed then allowed to escape between the tongue and the roof of the mouth; Nasals(鼻音): m n N air allowed to pass the nose; Glides(滑音): w j very narrow passage between the lips and causing slight noise from the local obstruction.1.5 English vowels1.5.1 Tongue positionFront vowels: i: i e A BCentral vowels: : QBack vowels: u: C: C B:1.5 English vowels1.5.2 Openness of the mouthClose vowels: i: i u: Semi-close vowels: e :Semi-open vowels: C:Open vowels: A B Q C1.5 English vowels1.5.3 Diphthongs ei ai Ci au u i e u1.6 IPA (国际音标)* Did he believe that Caesar could see the people seize the seas?* fishghoti fohenough owomen Ftination * dad call village many A C: i e 1.6 IPA English spelling does not represent its pronunciation.Spelling (composed of letters) and pronunciation are not the same.There are more sounds in English than its letters can represent, each letter must represent more than one sound.It is necessary to have a set of symbols to record the sounds, because the discrepancy between spelling and pronunciation are great.1.6 IPA discrepancy between spelling and pronunciation Spelling reformers to revise the alphabet so that one letter could correspond to one sound, and one sound to one letter, thus to simplify spelling system.1.6 IPA Several such systems are in use, like Websters, however, we will introduce International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which came into being in 1888.The present system of the IPA derives mainly from one developed in the 1920s by the British phonetician, Daniel Jones.The latest version of the IPA was revised in 1993 and corrected (updated) in 1996.1.7 Broad/narrow transcription IPA is a standardized system of symbols to transcribe sounds (pronunciation) in written form. The symbols consist of letters and diacritics. Diacritics(变音符号) are added to the letter symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.1.7 Broad/narrow transcription bee bi: bean bi:n bi:n pit pit p it spit spit1.7 Broad/narrow transcriptionBroad transcription(宽式标音): transcription with letter-symbols only, used in dictionaries and textbooks for general purposes. Narrow transcription(严式标音): transcription with letter-symbols with diacritics, used by phoneticians to represent more fine details.2. Phonology2.1 Phonetics and phonology2.2 Phoneme 2.3 Distinctive features2.4 Phones, phonemes and allophones2.5 Complementary distribution & phonemic contrast2.6 Phonological rules2.7 Suprasegmental rules2.1 Phonetics and phonologyBoth phonetics and phonology concern the study of speech sounds.Phonetics mainly deals with the description and transcription of speech sounds.Phonology explores the patterns that govern the combination of sounds, i.e, it studies how speech sounds are grouped together to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 2.2 Phoneme sip sip zip zips zdistinguish/contrast different words distinctive sounds in English sounds with distinctive feature/value2.2 Phoneme2.2.1 Definition Phonemea sound segment with distinctive value. It is the smallest unit of sound in a language to distinguish words. 2.2.2 Function to distinguish different words/meanings.2.2 Phoneme2.2.3 How to determine a phoneme in a language The easiest way is to substitute one sound segment in a word with another sound, and then to see whether this way can result in a different word.2.2 Phoneme2.2.4 minimal pair/minimal set For two sound combinations (pronunciation of two words), if they are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, then they areminimal pairs(最小对立体). If more than two sound combinations are involved, then they are minimal sets(最小对立组).2.2 Phoneme sip sip sip sip sip sip zip zip soup su:p sit sit beat bi:t so su bit bit go gu bet bet show Fu though Tu 2.2 Phoneme Q: Are the following two sound combinations minimal pairs? seed si:d soup su:p bar bar rab rab 2.3 Distinctive features sip sip zip zip s z voiceless voiced -voiced +voiced2.3 Distinctive features It is this phonetic feature voiced that distinguishes the two words. When a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another, it is a distinctive feature, such as voiced .2.3 Distinctive features bat bAt mat mAt an oral consonant a nasal consonant nasal in English consonants pit pit put put front vowel back vowel back in English vowels2.3 Distinctive featuresExample 1: bean bi:n bi:n An oral i: is used to substitute the nasalized i:, themeaning of the word is not changed, though people may feel your pronunciation is a little bit strange.2.3 Distinctive features bee bead bean bi: bi:d bi:n lay lace lame lei leis leimIn English, oral vowelin final position; before oral consonant. nasalized vowelonly before nasal consonants2.3 Distinctive featuresGeneral rule 1 In English, a vowel is nasalized before a word-final or syllable-final nasal consonant. e.g. remote ri5mEut denote di5nEut 2.3 Distinctive features Since general rule 1 governs when a nasalized vowel would occur, then we say this feature nasal is predictable. As it is predictable, we say this feature is non-distinctive. So nasal is a non-distinctive feature in English vowels, though it is a distinctive feature in English consonants. 2.3 Distinctive featuresExample 2: spit spit sp it An aspirated p is used to substitute the un-aspirated p, the meaning of the word is not changed, though people may feel it is not the usual way that you pronounce this word. 2.3 Distinctive features pill till kill p il t il k il spill still skill spil stil skilIn English, a voiceless stop aspirated at the beginning of a word before a stressed vowel un-aspirated after an initial s2.3 Distinctive featuresGeneral rule 2 In English, a voiceless stop is aspirated when it occurs word initially or syllable initially before a stressed vowel. e.g. appear E5piE2.3 Distinctive features Since general rule 2 governs when a voiceless stop would be aspirated, we say this feature aspiration is predictable. As it is predictable, we say this feature is non-distinctive. So aspiration is a non-distinctive feature in English voiceless stops.2.4 phone/phoneme/allophones bead bean pit spit bi:d bi:n pit spit /b/ /i:/ /d/ /n/ /p/ /i/ /s/ /t/8 phonemes bi:d bi:n p it spit i: d i: n p p i t s10 phones /i:/ i: / i: /p/ p / p 2.4 phone/phoneme/allophones * The same phonemes /i:/ and /p/ are pronounced as different sounds in different phonetic contexts. * There is no one-to-one correspondence between phonetic segments and phonemes in a languageone phoneme may be realized (pronounced) as more than one phonetic segments.2.4 phone/phoneme/allophones phoneme (音位) a sound segment with distinctive value phone (音素,语音) a phonetic unit/a sound segment allophones (音位变体) one phoneme can be pronounced as one or more than one phones, and these different phones that represent the one phoneme are called allophones of that phoneme.2.4 phone/phoneme/allophones 2.4 phone/phoneme/allophones a a a a a a a a a2.4 phone/phoneme/allophones The choice of the allophone is not random, but is rule-governed. All these rules are not taught, but “constructed” by learners themselves, and one of the linguists task is to find out these rules.2.5 Complementary distribution(互补分布) & phonemic contrast(音位对立) * For two phonetically similar sound segments, If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to be in phonemic contrast. e.g. s / z b / p f / v 2.5 Complementary distribution(互补分布) & phonemic contrast(音位对立) If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they occur in different phonetic contexts but not contrast meanings. Then, the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution. e.g. i: / i: p / p 2.6 phonological rules Best wishes for very happy birtfday! The patterning of phonemes in a a language is rule-governed. The phonological rules determine how phonemes are combined to form permissible words in a language for communication.2.6 phonological rules2.6.1 Sequential rule /sequential constraint (顺序规则 / 顺序限制) consonant cluster (辅音丛)2.6 phonological rules2.6.2 Assimilation rule (同化规则) It assimilates one sound segment to another by “copying” or “spreading” a feature of a sequential sound, thus making the two phones more similar. 2.6 phonological rules bean bomb / bi:n / / b m / vowel nasalization rule bi:n b m 2.6 phonological rules The rule is caused (for the most part) by articulatory processes. When we speak, we tend to decrease the difficulty of articulation. This tendency to “sloppiness” may become regularized as rules of the language.2.6 phonological rules2.6.3 Deletion rule (省略规则) A sound may be deleted even though it may be orthographically represented. e.g. sign, design, resign, signature, designation, resignation 2.6 phonological rulesThe rule can be stated as Delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.2.7 Suprasegmental features2.7.1 Definition Distinctive features that occur in units larger than sound segments, such as the syllables, words, phrases and sentences, are called suprasegmental features (超音段特征). The features include tone/pitch, stress and intonation.2.7 Suprasegmental features2.7.2 Tone /Pitch (音调/声调/调位) Tone/pitch is the degree of highness of voice. It depends on how fast the vocal cords vibrate when we speak. The faster they vibrate, the higher the pitch is. 2.7 Suprasegmental features The way pitch is used lingui