交际教学与任务型教学综述.doc

Unit 2 Communicative Principles and Task-based Language Teaching一、语言交际能力综述“交际能力” （communicative competence）概念的提出和“交际语言教学” （communicative language teaching）方法的出现，为交际法教学的改革提供了理论背景。“语言能力”(linguistic competence)首次是由乔姆斯基(Noam Chomsky，1965) 在语言研究中与“语言运用表现”(linguistic performance)一起提出来的。Chomsky认为：“能力”是指说话人听话人的内在语言知识，或称内有语法。语言能力是某种远比语言本身抽象的知识状态，是一套原则系统，一种知识体系，并非一种处事的能力，甚至也不是一种组织句子和理解句子的能力。Competence is ones underlying knowledge of the system of a language-its rules of grammar, its vocabulary, all the pieces of a language and how those pieces fit together. Performance is actual production (speaking, writing) or the comprehension (listening, reading) of linguistic events.(Brown,2007:P36)-H. Douglas Brown, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching(5th Edition) P36简评：乔氏将语言能力理想化; 把知识和运用截然分开; 此外，乔氏(Chomsky,1975,1980)在后来的著作中把知识(语言能力)与运用知识的能力(ability)分开，他认为从理论上讲人有可能具有语言知识的认知结构而没有使用该结构的能力(capacity)，知识处于比能力(capacity)更抽象的层次; 把语言知识与语法知识等同起来，语言能力即语法知识; 乔氏还认为语言能力的发展是由遗传基因决定的，语言间具有普遍性(Smith and Wilson, 1983)。他认为存在普遍语法(universal grammar)，由一套适合所有语法的通用原则和参数构成。语法又分为核心语法和周边语法(core grammar and peripheral grammar)，儿童的语言习得主要是由于普遍语法受环境的激发发展成成人的语言知识，同时儿童还得学会不遵循普遍语法的周边语言内容(Cook，1985)。Hymes(1972) 撰写论交际语言能力(On Communicative Competence)，提出并阐述交际语言能力（communicative competence）。)。 Hymes认为，Chomsky关于语言能力的概念，内涵过于狭窄，没有全面概括语言学习的认知对象。Chomsky只谈了抽象的语言组织或称结构规则，忽略了语言的使用规则和交际功能。海氏指出乔氏的语言能力观犹如伊甸园，忽略了重要的社会文化因素；其次，海氏认为乔氏的语言运用概念似乎有几种意思混在一起。海氏指出乔氏归入语言运用的东西有些是系统的，可以用规则描述，因而也可以看作某种形式的语言能力(Taylor，1988)；乔氏(1980)后来也承认这一点，在语法能力的基础上加上了语用能力(pragmatic competence)，为各种目的恰当运用语言的条件和方式的知识，也就是运用语法知识的潜在能力。这样的修正有一定道理，因为语言知识不只有语法。海氏在评论乔氏语言能力定义后提出了自己的“交际语言能力”概念，他把乔氏划为语言运用的内容也归入语言能力名下。他认为，一个人的交际能力包括语法(合法性)、心理(可行)、社会文化(得体)和概率(实际出现)等方面的判断能力。用他自己的话说，交际能力是“何时说，何时不说以及关于何时何地以何方式与何人说何内容”。海氏把交际语言能力定义为 “a knowledge of the rules for understanding and producing both the referential and social meaning of language .” （COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE AND COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING. .pdf）海氏的交际语言能力由四个部分组成：语法知识（形式上可能）、心理语言知识（操作上可行）、社会文化知识（语境中合适）和实际存在的知识（实际运用）。有些可能、可行、合适的语句并未真正出现。In Hymess view,there are rules of use without which the rules of grammar would be useless (Canale & Swain1980: 4) He considers communicative competence as the interaction of grammatical (what is formally possible), psycholinguistic (what is feasible in terms of human information processing), sociocultural (what is the social meaning or value of a given utterance), and probabilistic (what actually occurs) systems of competence (Canale & Swain 1980: 16).According to Hymes (1979), communicative competence includes four aspects: (p. 19) knowing whether or not something is formally possible (grammaticality: grammatically acceptable); 知道形式上是否可能 - 可能性程度(degree of possibility) knowing whether something is understandable to human beings (feasibility);知道是否可行 - 可行性程度(degree of feasibility) knowing whether something is in line with social norms (appropriateness in a social context);知道是否得体 - 合适性程度(degree of appropriateness) knowing whether or not something is in fact done (what the language performance entails).知道实施的条件-出现性程度(degree of performance)简评：海氏交际语言能力前者体现为语言形式的准确性(accuracy)，后者则体现为具体情景中语言运用的合适性(appropriateness)。海氏几乎把语言的一切运用情况都划归交际能力范围，认为它们都可能用规则系统地阐述。这样一来，表面上他在扩充语言能力概念，而事实上他把语言能力做了微妙的改变(Taylor，1988)。语言能力包括从语法能力到社会语言能力的一切听和说的能力(capabilities)，语法能力纯粹是个体的，是形式和状态，社会语言能力主要是社会的，是功能和过程。海氏认为语言能力依赖潜在的知识和使用知识的能力(ability for use)。结果，把运用知识的能力看作语言能力就得承认动机等非认知因素有部分决定语言能力的作用(Munby,1978)。Chomsky认为语言能力是一种纯净齐一的语言社团里的理想化了的人的知识(knowledge)(Brumfit 1979)，而Hymes把语言能力解释为知识和知识的运用能力。Chomsky是一位理论语言学家，他关心的是人是如何生成和理解语言的。而Hymes是一位人种学家、社会语言学家，他感兴趣的是语言的实际运用和具体操作。Hymes交际能力理论有很大的局限性，存在不少误区，集中表现在以下几个方面：1) Hymes的交际能力偏重单向的自我导向性，忽视了交际是双方主观意识间的心灵沟通；2) Hymes交际能力是一套理想化了的语言行为；3) 情景决定论(situational determination)-与Chomsky的心智主义只强调语言本身的结构相反，Hymes的交际能力理论强调外部情景对语言的决定作用。英国功能语言学家Halliday(1973)描述了语言的七种基本功能：1、工具功能(instrumental function)；2、规章功能(regulatory function)；3、相互关系功能(interactional function)；4、个人功能(personal function)；5、启发功能(heuristic function)； 6、 想象功能(imaginative function)； 7、 描述功能(descriptive function)(参见何广铿，1997：97-98；Brown,1987:203)-（More: H. Douglas Brown,Principles of Language Learning and Teaching(5th Edition),Pearson Education,Inc. 2007: P224）。1978 年，Widdowson H.G 更加明确地就交际能力这个概念解释到，交际能力不是在记忆里编纂的一些语言项目，而是指一套策略，用以在实际语言使用情境中实现语言元素的价值，是在口头或者书面语段里，人们能够有技巧地运用共有知识和语言使用规则，明确清楚地表达自己的思想、情感和观点。他又说到，交际能力体现在课堂教学中就是学习者对课堂话语的解释能力。Widdowson认为“能力”有两部分：知识和技能。前者相当于语法能力，后者相当于语用能力。“We do not only learn how to compose and comprehend correct sentences as isolated linguistic units of random occurrence ;but also how to use sentences appropriately to achieve communicative purposes. ”(Widdowson, 1978 )According to Widdowson, the idea that once competence is acquired, performance will take care of itself is false. “懂得句子怎样结合及其所表示的语言学意义就自然而然地知道它们在交际中如何使用的那种认识是根本错误的。”“Children develop a general theory of speaking appropriately in their community from a finite experience of speech acts and their interdependence with sociocultural features.”( Hymes,1972 )Taking this into account, Widdowson strongly suggests that we need to teach communicative competence along with linguistic competence.Widdowson distinguishes two aspects of performance: “usage” and “use.” He explains that “usage” makes evident the extent to which the language user demonstrates his knowledge of linguistic rules, whereas “use” makes evident the extent to which the language user demonstrates his ability to use his knowledge of linguistic rules for effective communication.(Widdowson,1978) He also distinguishes two aspects of meaning: “significance” and “value.” Significance is the meaning that sentences have in isolation from the particular situation in which the sentence is produced. Value is the meaning that sentences take on when they are used to communicate.(Widdowson,1978)八十年代初，Canale和Swain (1980,1983) 首先提出了操作性较强的交际能力模式，发展了Hymes关于交际能力的理论。他们认为交际能力实际上涵盖四种能力：即语法能力(Grammatical competence)，语篇能力(discourse competence)，社会语言能力(sociolinguistic competence)和策略能力(strategic competence)。语法能力乔姆斯基所言的深层语言能力；社会语言能力海姆斯所说的语言使用的适切性的能力；策略能力补偿语言能力不足，完成交际活动的能力。后来卡纳尔把这一模式又扩充了一个方面：语篇能力处理句子以上层次的语篇规则的能力。20世纪90年代，美国著名应用语言学家LyleFBachman(1990) 提出了自己的关于语言交际能力(Communicative Language Ability, CLA)的观点。Bachman把交际能力改称为语言能力(language competence)，认为语言能力应由两大子能力组成：(1)语言的组织能力(organizational competence)，包括语法能力和语篇能力；(2)语用能力(pragmatic competence)，包括言外行为能力和社会语言能力。与Canale模式相比，该模式突出了语用能力和语言的功能，突出了理解话语的交际意图。另外，该模式把Canale的策略能力从交际能力整体框架中独立出来，认为它起着一种“执行”(executive)最后决定的功能(Brown 1994)。语言交际能力(communicative language ability)就是把语言知识和语言作用的场景特征结合起来，创造并解释意义的能力(Capacity) “both knowledge, or competence, and the capacity for implementing or executing that competence in appropriate contextualized communicative use”。KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURESKnowledge of the world知识结构 （关于世界的知识）LANGUAGE COMPETENCEKnowledge of the language语言能力（关于语言的知识）STRATEGIC COMPETENCE策略能力PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS心理生理机制CONTEXT OF SITUATION语言使用环境图：交际语言能力的成份(Bachman 1990:85)Bachman认为，CLA包括三部分：语言能力、策略能力和心理生理机制：1）语言能力 （Language Competence）包括两部分：组织能力和语用能力2）策略能力 （strategy competence）它包括四组元认知策略：评价策略(assessment strategies)、确定目标策略(goal-setting strategies)、制订计划策略(planning strategies)和执行计划策略(execution strategies)。他认为，在任何场景下使用语言，这些元认知策略和语言知识的各个方面都是结合在一起、互相作用的，并且无先后次序之分。也就是说，构成语言能力的各个成分，尽管互不相同，但在使用语言的任何场合下，总是相互作用，相互影响，并且是不可分割的。3）心理生理机制 (psychophysiological mechanism)Bachman（1990）认为，心理生理机制指的是“在实际完成语言这一物理现象时所涉及到的神经或心理过程(the neurological and psychological processes involved in the actual execution of language as a physical phenomenon)”，心理生理机制有视觉和听觉渠道，生成和接收方式等。在接受性的语言使用中，要用到视觉和听觉技能，而在生成性的语言使用中也要用到肌肉神经技能（如发音）。可见Bachman的语言交际能力涉及到了这种能力在具体交际情景中的实现。但目前对该机制的具体操作过程还有待近一步研究。总之，Bachman认为，语言交际能力就是把语言知识和语言使用的场景特征结合起来，创造并解释意义的能力，它由语言知识和一系列认知策略组成。该模式把卡纳尔、斯温模式又推向了一大步。策略能力被认为是任何交际活动中不可或缺的一部分，修正了卡纳尔、斯温模式中把其仅仅看作交际困难中的一种补偿手段的不足。另外，该模式充分肯定了认知策略、语用知识在交际能力中的作用。简评：Bachman(1990,1991)认为，语言交际能力(即CLA)就是把语言知识和语言作用的场景特征结合起来，创造并解释意义的能力(Capacity)，它由语言知识(Language Knowledge)和一系列元认知策略(Metacognitive Strategies)以及心理生理机制组成。根据Bachman的定义，语言能力是由两方面的能力所组成，即：语言知识和策略能力(Strategies Competence)。按Bachman的解释，语言知识是储存在人们大脑的，为语言能力所特有的一个信息范畴，这里的知识既包括明晰的和隐含的，又包括经过分析的和未经分析的知识。语言知识由“组织篇章结构的知识”(organizational Knowledge)和“语用知识(Pragmatic Knowledge)两部分组成。前者决定语篇(口语的和书面语的)是怎样构成的，后者决定话语或句子、意图和语境是怎样联系起来并构成意义的。策略能力包括四组元认知策略：评价策略(Assessment Strategies)，确保目标策略(Goal-setting Strategies)、制度计划策略(Planning Strategies)和执行计划策略(Execution Strategies)。他认为，在任何场景下使用语言，这些元认知策略和语言知识的各个方面都是结合在一起的、互相作用的，并且无先后次序之分。也就是说，构成语言能力的各个成分，尽管互不相同，但在使用语言的任何场合下，总是相互作用、相互影响，并且是不可分割的。Hedge (2000: 46-55) discusses five main components of communicative competence: -linguistic competence -pragmatic competence -discourse competence -strategic competence - fluency (PP17-19) 1).linguistic competence语言能力是指理解语言本身，语言形式及其意义的能力。语言能力包含了拼写、发音、词汇、构词、语法、句型和语义等方面的能力。语言能力是交际能力的基石，一个不可缺少的组成部份。2).pragmatic competence语用能力是指学习者在特定的语境中针对特定的对象知道如何合适清晰地表达自己的意图的能力。用 Hymes 的话说就是知道 “何时说，何时不说，和谁，什么时间，什么地点，以什么方式说些什么” 。 3).discourse competence 篇章能力是指在口语或书面语中理解或创造连贯的上下文内容的能力，或称话语能力。4).strategic competence策略能力是指如何在一个真实的交际情景下保持交际渠道通畅的能力。它包括以下三个方面：1) 在口语和书面语冒险一试的能力；2)使用具体交际策略的能力；3)习得具体交际策略中的常用语言形式。5).fluency 语言流畅:语言流畅是指自如地把言语单元有效连结起来的能力。流畅涉及语言的输出，多指口语的输出。流畅包括三个方面：1）语义流畅，2）词汇，句法流畅，3）发音流畅。二、交际法教学Communicative Language Teaching TodayWilkins在“Notional Syllabuses” （1976）一书中提出了意念功能大纲（notional-functional syllabus），由此产生的意念功能教学法，又被称为交际语言教学法。交际法教学产生于20世纪70年代的欧洲，交际法也叫功能法(Functional Approach)或意念法(Notional Approach)。交际法是70年代根据语言学家海姆斯(Hymes)和韩礼德(Halliday)的理论形成的，是全世界影响较大的外语教学法流派。交际学派认为：语言教学的目的是培养学生使用目的语进行交际的能力，语言教学的内容不仅要包括语言结构，还要包括表达各种意念和功能的常用语句。交际法重视培养学生的语言能力，采用真实、地道的语言材料，主张句型加情景来学习语言，鼓励学生多多接触和使用外语。J “英语教学的目的在于培养学生用英语进行交际的能力，这已是国内外英语教学界的共识。”（王才仁，1998：26）J Communicative Language Teaching is best considered as an approach rather than a method (Richards & Rogers, 1986).J Because it (CLT) refers to a diverse set of rather general and uncontroversial principles, Communicative Language Teaching can be interpreted in many different ways and used to support a wide variety of classroom procedures. Several contemporary teaching approaches, such as Content-Based Instruction, Cooperative Language Learning, and Task-Based Instruction, can all claim to be applications of these principles and hence continue as mainstream approaches today.( Growing up with TESOL-Jack Richards, 2008)J-H. Douglas Brown,Teaching by Principles-an interactive approach to language pedagogy(2nd edition),White Plains, NY: Longman.2001：P43受交际法的影响，产生了不同的教学模式：CLT family includes:Learner-Centered Instruction/ Cooperative and Collaborative Learning/Interactive Learning (Widdowson, 1979)/ Whole Language Education/Content-Based Instruction(Brinton 2003)/ Task-Based Instruction (Prabhu,1983)/Problem-based learning, and Immersion education ( Johnston and Swain 1997)/ test-based syllabuses(Fees 1998) -See also: Nunan, D. (2004). Task-Based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press P 10Principles for Communicative Language teaching 交际法教学原则Three principles suggested by Richards and Rodgers(1986:72)1)Communication principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning. (e.g. ask/offer help in railway stations)2)Task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful task promote learning. (e.g. making out class rules)3)Meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to learner supports the learning process. (e.g. words of animals)教学原则为指导教学工作的基本准则。1990年教育大辞典Methodological Principles of Communicative Language Teaching and Task-Based InstructionDoughty and Long (2003) define methodological principles as a list of design features that can be generally regarded as being facilitative to second language acquisition. The following list, adapted from Doughty and Long (2003), serves as a guideline for implementing communicative language teaching (CLT) practices.Principle 1: Use Tasks as an Organizational PrinciplePrinciple 2: Promote Learning by DoingPrinciple 3: Input Needs to Be RichPrinciple 4: Input Needs to Be Meaningful, Comprehensible, and ElaboratedPrinciple 5: Promote Cooperative and Collaborative LearningPrinciple 6: Focus on FormPrinciple 7: Provide Error Corrective FeedbackPrinciple 8: Recognize and Respect Affective Factors of Learning（阅读：Principles of Communicative Language Teaching and Task-Based Instruction .pdf）There are twelve overarching principles of second language learning:（阅读: Teaching by principles 讲义.pdf）Cognitive Principles1. Automaticity-Efficient second language learning involves a timely movement of the control of a few language forms into the automatic processing of a relatively unlimited number of language forms. Overanalyzing language, thinking too much about its forms, and consciously lingering on rules of language all tend to impede this graduation to automaticity.2. Meaningful Learning-Meaningful learning will lead toward better long-term retention than rote learning.3. The Anticipation of Reward-Human beings are universally driven to act, or behave, by the anticipation of some sort of rewardtangible or intangible, short term or long termthat will ensue as a result of the behavior.4. The Intrinsic Motivation Principle-The most powerful rewards are those that are intrinsically motivated within the learner. Because the behavior stems from needs, wants, or desires within oneself, the behavior itself is self-rewarding; therefore, no externally administered reward is necessary at all.5. Strategic Investment-Successful mastery of the second language will be due to a large extent to a learners own personal investment of time, effort, and attention to the second language in the form of an individualized battery of strategies for comprehending and producing the language.Affective Principles6. Language Ego-As human beings learn to use a second language, they also develop a new mode of thinking, feeling, and actinga second identity. The new language ego, intertwined with the second language, can easily create within the learner a sense of fragility, a defensiveness, and a raising of inhibitions.7. Self-confidenceThe eventual success that learners attain in a task is at least partially a factor of their belief that they indeed are fully capable of accomplishing the task.8. Risk-taking-Successful language learners, in their realistic appraisal of themselves as vulnerable beings yet capable of accomplishing tasks, must be willing to become gamblers in the game of language, to attempt to produce and to interpret language that is a bit beyond their absolute certainty.9. The Language-Culture Connection-Whenever you teach a language, you also teach a complex system of cultural customs, values, and ways of thinking, feeling, and acting.Linguistic Principles10. The Native Language Effect-The native language of learners will be a highly significant system on which learners will rely to predict the target language system. While that native system will exercise both facilitating and interfering effects on the production and comprehension of the new language, the interfering effects are likely to be the most salient.11. Interlanguage-Second language learners tend to go through a systematic or quasi-systematic developmental process as they progress to full competence in the target language. Successful interlanguage language development is partially a factor of utilizing feedback from others.12. Communicative Competence-Given that communicative competence is the goal of a language classroom, then instruction needs to point toward all of its components: organizational, pragmatic, strategic, and psychomotor. Communicative goals are best achieved by giving due attention to language use and not just usage, to fluency and not just accuracy, to authentic language and contexts, and to students eventual need to apply classroom learning to heretofore unrehearsed contexts in the real world.The Present: An Informed “Approach” Communicative Language Teaching David Nunan (1991a:279) offers five features to characterize CLT: 1. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language. 2. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation. 3. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the learning process itself. 4. An enhancement of the learners own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning. 5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom.The Communicative Approach gives priority to the semantic content of language learning. Thus, learning activities are selected according to how well they engage the learner in meaningful and authentic language use (rather than merely mechanical practice of language patterns) (Richards & Rogers, 1986: 72).According to Morrow, activities that are truly communicative should have three features. (cited in Larsen Freeman 1986:132)1. Information gap: During the communication some knowledge exchange should take place. Asking to someone who knows what today is “What is today?”, and getting his response is not a true communication. Besides, Scrivener states that we normally communicate when one of us has information (facts, opinions, ideas, etc.) that another does not have. This is known as an “information gap” (1994:62)2. Choice: In communication, the speaker should have the choice of what to say and how to say.3. Feedback: True communication is purposeful. Speaker can evaluate whether or not his purpose has been achieved based upon the information he receives from his listener. Littlewood (1981) 的功能沟通活动（functional communication activities），这些活动内容可以藉由图片、漫画、影片或短文呈现给学生作片面回应。Littlewood 的社会互动活动（social inte