外文翻译--汽车的发展史

1 外文翻译 Automobile history It is generally claimed that the first automobiles with gasoline powered internal combustion engines were completed almost simultaneously in 1886 by German inventors working independently: Carl Benz on 3 July 1886 in Mannheim, resp. Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Stuttgart (also inventors of the first motor bike) and Austrian inventor Siegfried Marcus in Vienna. Steam-powered self propelled vehicles were devised in the late 18th century. Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot successfully demonstrated such a vehicle as early as 1769. The first vehicles were steam engine powered； probably the most notable advances in steam power evolved in Birmingham, England by the Lunar Society. It was here that the term Horsepower was first used. It was in Birmingham also that the first four wheel petrol-driven automobiles were built in Britain in 1895 by Frederick William Lanchester who also patented the disc brake in the city. Electric vehicles were produced by a small number of manufacturers. In the United States, cars in the 1890s used ethanol, an alcohol fuel； petrol (called gasoline in the U.S. and Canada) and diesel engines were implemented later. Many U.S. farmers continued to make their own alcohol fuel in corn-alcohol stills until Prohibition criminalized the production of alcohol in 1919. Brazil is the only country which produces ethanol-running cars, since the late 1970s. Popularity Cugnots invention initially saw little application in his native France, and the center of innovation passed to Great Britain, where Richard Trevithick was running a steam-carriage in 1801. Such vehicles were in vogue for a time, and over the next decades such innovations as hand brakes, multi-speed transmissions, and improved speed and steering were developed. Some were commercially successful in providing mass transit, until a backlash against these large speedy vehicles resulted in passing laws that self-propelled vehicles on public roads in the United Kingdom must be preceded by a man on foot waving a red flag and blowing a horn. This effectively killed road auto development in the UK for most of the rest of the 19th century, as inventors and engineers shifted their efforts to improvements in railway 2 locomotives. The red flag law was not repealed until 1896. The many varieties of automobile racing collectively constitute one of the most popular categories of sport in the world. Today, the USA has more cars than any other nation. Though Japan is a leading nation in car manufacturing, the average Japanese citizen cannot afford the high costs of running a car in a country where parking space is scarce and fuel is very expensive. There are offers to get a new car for free or get paid to drive them in return for displaying advertisement on the cars, and hence only available to individuals of certain profiles. The first automobile patent in the United States was granted to Oliver Evans in 1789； in 1804 Evans demonstrated his first successful self-propelled vehicle, which not only was the first automobile in the USA but was also the first amphibious vehicle, as his steam-powered vehicle was able to travel on wheels on land and via a paddle wheel in the water. About 1870 in Vienna, Siegfried Marcus put a gasoline engine on a simple handcart. On November 5, 1895, George B. Selden was granted a United States patent for a two-stroke automobile engine .This patent did more to hinder than encourage development of autos in the USA. A major breakthrough came with the historic drive of Berta Benz in 1888. Steam, electric, and gasoline powered autos competed for decades, with gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s. The large scale, production-line manufacturing of affordable automobiles was debuted by Oldsmobile in 1902, then greatly expanded by Henry Ford in the 1910s. Early automobiles were often referred to as horseless carriages, and did not stray far from the design of their predecessor. Through the period from 1900 to the mid 1920s, development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to a huge (hundreds) number of small manufacturers all competing to gain the worlds attention. Key developments included electric ignition and the electric self-starter (both by Charles Kettering, for the Cadillac Motor Company in 1910-1911), independent suspension, and four-wheel brakes. By the 1930s, most of the technology used in automobiles had been invented, although it was often re-invented again at a later date and credited to someone else. For example, front-wheel drive was re-introduced by Andre Citron with the launch of the Traction Avant in 1934, though it appeared several years earlier in road cars made by Alvis and Cord, and in racing cars by Miller (and may have appeared as early as 1897). After 1930, the number of 3 auto manufacturers declined sharply as the industry consolidated and matured. Since 1960, the number of manufacturers has remained virtually constant, and innovation slowed. For the most part, new automotive technology was a refinement on earlier work, though these refinements were sometimes so extensive as to render the original work nearly unrecognizable. The chief exception to this was electronic engine management, which entered into wide use in the 1960s, when electronic parts became cheap enough to be mass-produced and rugged enough to handle the harsh environment of an automobile. Developed by Bosch, these electronic systems have enabled automobiles to drastically reduce exhaust emissions while increasing efficiency and power. Model changeover and design change Cars are not merely continually perfected mechanical contrivances； since the 1920s nearly all have been mass-produced to meet a market, so marketing plans and manufacture to meet them have often dominated automobile design. It was Alfred P. Sloan who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one firm, so that buyers could move up as their fortunes improved. The makes shared parts with one another so that the larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. For example, in the 1950s, Chevrolet shared hood, doors, roof, and windows with Pontiac； the LaSalle of the 1930s, sold by Cadillac, used the cheaper mechanical parts made by the Oldsmobile division. He also conceived of the notion of the yearly model change-over, which became a three-year cycle. In the second year of the cycle, the superficial appearance of the cars changed incidentally； for the third, major changes took place, e.g., the fender dies for the 1957 Chevrolet had to be modified to produce thin, pointed fins and squarish headlamp housings. In the next cycle, the doors, roof, trunk, and often the suspension would have to be redesigned. Factories and the yearly work schedule had to be specialized to accommodate these changeovers. Such a patterns became dominant for the Big Three automakers in the US, though European firms neither amalgamated nor could afford the changeover. After the 1950s, when American firms tackled the technical problems of high-compression V-8 engines, automatic transmissions, and air conditioners, investment shifted to meeting the market for non-technical matters. This was criticized as planned obsolescence, although by this it was 4 meant that the car would simply be made to go out of style rather than really being technically surpassed. For example, only those few American cars of the 1960s with front-wheel drive or a rear engine had a fully independent rear suspension because the Hotchkiss drive was cheaper, and people were used to it. Such malinvestment left American firms unprepared for the Oil Crisis of the 1970s and the rise of imported luxury cars in the 1980s. Regulation In almost every nation, laws have been enacted governing the operation of motor vehicles. Most of this legislation, including limits on allowable speed and other rules of the road, are designed to ensure the smooth flow of traffic and simultaneously protect the safety of vehicle occupants, cyclists, and pedestrians. In 1965, in California, legislation was introduced to regulate exhaust emissions, the first such legislation in the world. Answering this new interest in environmental and public safety issues, the Department of Transportation (DOT) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) both introduced legislation in 1968 which substantially altered the course of automotive development. Since the US market was the largest in the world (and California the largest market in the US), manufacturers worldwide were forced to adapt. For the first time, safety devices were mandatory, as were controls on harmful emissions. Prior to this legislation, even seat belts were considered extra-cost options by many manufacturers. Other countries followed by introducing their own safety and environmental legislation. In time, meeting regulations became the main challenge for the engineers designing new cars. In the decade from 1975 to 1985, the worlds manufacturers struggled to meet the new regulations, some producing substandard cars with reduced reliability as a result. However, by the end of this period, everyone had learned how to handle the newly regulated environment. The manufacturers discovered that safety and environmentalism sold cars, and some began introducing environmental and safety advances on their own initiative. Environmental improvements Among the first environmental advances are the so-called alternative fuels for the internal combustion engine, which have been around for many years. Early in automotive history, before gasoline was widely available at corner pumps, cars ran on many fuels, 5 including kerosene (paraffin) and coal gas. Alcohol fuels were used in racing cars before and just after World War II. Today, methanol and ethanol are used as petrol extenders in some countries, notably in Australia and the United States. In countries with warmer climates, such as Brazil, alcohol derived from sugar cane is often used as a substitute fuel. In many countries, plentiful supplies of natural gas have seen methane sold as compressed natural gas (CNG) and propane sold as liquified petroleum gas (LPG) alongside petrol and diesel fuels since the 1970s. While a standard automotive engine will run on these fuels with very low exhaust emissions, there are some performance differences, notably a loss of power due to the lower energy content of the alternative fuels. The need to equip filling stations and vehicles with pressurized vessels to hold these gaseous fuels and more stringent safety inspections, means that they are only economical when used for a long distance, or if there are installation incentives. They are most economical where petrol has high taxes and the alternative fuels do not. Alternative fuels and batteries With heavy taxes on fuel, particularly in Europe and tightening environmental laws, particularly in California, and the possibility of further restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions, work on alternative power systems for vehicles continues. Diesel-powered cars can run with little or no modification on 100% pure biodiesel, a fuel that can be made from vegetable oils. Many cars that currently use gasoline can run on ethanol, a fuel made from plant sugars. Most cars that are designed to run on gasoline are capable of running with 15% ethanol mixed in, and with a small amout of redesign, gasoline-powered vehicles can run on ethanol concentrations as high as 85%. All petrol fueled cars can run on LPG. There has been some concern that the ethanol-gasoline mixtures prematurely wear down seals and gaskets. Further, the use of higher levels of alcohol require that the automobile carry/use twice as much. Therefore, if your vehicle is capable of 300 miles on a 15-gallon tank, the efficiency is reduced to approximately 150 miles. Of course, certain measures are available to increase this efficiency, such as different camshaft configurations, altering the timing/spark output of the ignition, or simply, using a larger fuel tank. Attempts at building viable battery-powered electric vehicles continued throughout the 1990s (notably General Motors with the EV1), but cost, speed and inadequate driving range 6 made them uneconomical. Battery powered cars have used lead-acid batteries which are greatly damaged in their recharge capacity if discharged beyond 75% on a regular basis and NiMH batteries. Current research and development is centered on hybrid vehicles that use both electric power and internal combustion. Other alternatives being explored, involve methane and hydrogen-burning vehicles using fuel cells, and even the stored energy of compressed air (see Air Engine). Safety Accidents seem as old as automobile vehicles themselves. Joseph Cugnot crashed his steam-powered Fardier against a wall in 1770. The first recorded automobile fatality was Bridget Driscoll on August 17, 1896 in London and the first in the United States was Henry Bliss on September 13, 1899 in New York City. Every year more than a million people are killed and about 50 million people are wounded in traffic (according to WHO estimates), either by crashing into something, or by being crashed into. Cars also cause innumerable injuries and deaths among millions of animals (see roadkill). Major factors in accidents include driving under the influence of alcohol or other drugs, inattentive driving, overtired driving, road hazards such as snow, potholes and animals, and reckless driving. Special safety features have been built into cars for years, some for the safety of cars occupants only, some for the safety of others. Cars have two basic safety problems: They have human drivers who make mistakes, and the wheels lose traction near a half gravity of deceleration. Automated control has been seriously proposed, and successfully prototyped. Shoulder-belted passengers could tolerate a 32G emergency stop (reducing the safe intervehicle gap 64-fold) if high-speed roads incorporated a steel rail for emergency braking. Both safety modifications of the roadway are thought to be too expensive by most funding authorities, although these modifications would dramatically increase the number of vehicles that could safely use a high-speed highway. Early safety research focused on increasing the reliability of brakes, and reducing the flammability of fuel systems. For example, modern engine compartments are open at the bottom so that fuel vapors, which are heavier than air, drain to the open air. Brakes are hydraulic so that failures are slow leaks, rather than an abrupt cable-parting. Systematic research on crash safety started in 1958 at Ford Motor Company. Since then, most research has focused on absorbing external crash energy with crushable panels, and reducing the 7 motion of human bodies in the passenger compartment. There are standard tests for safety in new automobiles, like the EuroNCAP and the US NCAP tests There are also tests run by organizations backed by the insurance industry . Despite technological advances, the death toll of car accidents remains high: about 40,000 people die every year in the US, a number which increases annually in line with rising population and increased travel (although the rate per capita and per mile travelled decreases steadily), with similar trends in Europe. The death toll is expected to nearly double worldwide by 2020. A much higher number of accidents result in injury or permanent disability. Automobile manufacture The automobile usually by the engine, the chassis, the automobile body, the electrical equipment four partial hosts becomes The engine function is causes for into fuel burning to send out the power. The majority automobile all uses the reciprocation internal-combustion reciprocating engine, it generally is by the organism, the crank link motion gear, the carburetor construction, the supplies is, Cooling system, Lubrication system, Ignition system (gasoline engine uses), Starting system and so on partially is composed. The chassis accepts the engine the power, causes the automobile to have the movement, and guarantee automobile according to pilots operation normal speed. The chassis by following partially is composed： Transmission system bequeaths the engine power actuates the wheel. Transmission system including part and so on coupling, transmission gearbox, drive shaft, driving axle The travel is each always becomes the automobile and the part company becomes an individual and plays the supporting role to the entire vehicle, guarantees the automobile normal speed. The travel is including the frame, Front Axis, the driving axle shell, the wheel (changes wheel and actuation wheel), hanging Frame (front hanging Frame and latter hanging Frame) and so on the part Revolves Direction system guaranteed the automobile can defer to the direction travel which the pilot chooses, is composed by the belt steering wheel diverter and the steering drive. Applies the brake to equip causes the automobile to decelerate or to stop, after and guaranteed the pilot departs the automobile to be able reliably stop. Each automobile applies 8 the brake the equipment all to include certain mutually independent braking system, each braking system all by energizes the installment, the control device, the transmission device and the brake is composed. The automobile body is a place which the pilot works, also is loads the passenger and the cargo place. The automobile body should provide the convenience for the pilot the operating condition, as well as provides the comfortable safe and secure environment for the passenger or the guarantee cargo is perfect. Typical freight vehicle automobile body including vehicle in front of part and so on workpiece, cab, compartment. The electrical equipment by the power pack, the engine starting system and Ignition system, the automobile illumination and the signaller and so on is composed. In addition, more and more installs on the modern automobile with each kind of electronic installation: The microprocessor, the central computer system and each kind of artificial intelligence installment and so on, remarkably enhanced the automobile performance In order to satisfy the different operation requirements, the automobile overall structure and the arrangement pattern may be different. And each always becomes the relative position according to the engine the difference, the modern automobile arrangement pattern usually has the following several kinds The engine postpositioned rear wheel drive (RR) - is at present is big, the medium passenger train is in vogue with the arrangement pattern, has reduces the room internal noise, is advantageous to merit and so on automobile body interior arrangement. The minority miniature popularization passenger vehicle also uses this kind of pattern In the engine sets at the rear wheel drive (MR) - is the arrangement pattern which the present majority Movement Pattern passenger vehicle and the formula car uses. Because these vehicle types all use the power and the size very big engine, engine arrangement in front of pilots seat and rear axle of car is advantageous to obtains best axis Holland to assign and to enhance the automobile the performance. In addition, certain is big, the medium passenger train also uses this kind of arrangement pattern, the horizontal engine which provides installs in the underfloor. The entire wheel actuation (nWD) - is the cross-country vehicle unique pattern, usual engine pretage, has the transfer case in the transmission gearbox breech loading in order to separately transports the power to the complete wheel on. 译文 9 汽车的发展史 它一般被要求 1886 年 , 第一汽车与汽油供给动力的内燃机几乎同时被完成了由German 发明者独立地服务 : 卡尔苯在 1886 年 7 月 3 日在曼海姆 , resp 。 Gottlieb Daimler 和 Wilhelm Maybach 在斯图加特 (还发明者第一马达自行车 ) 并且奥地利发明者 Siegfried Marcus 在维也纳。 供给蒸汽动力的自走车构想了在 18 世纪晚期。 Nicolas 约瑟夫 Cugnot 成功地展示了这样一辆车早在 1769 年。第一车是蒸汽引擎供给动力 ； 最著名的前进在蒸汽生产额大概演变了在伯明翰 , 英国由月球社会。这里是 , 期限马力第一次被使用了。并且是在伯明翰 1895 年 , 第一四辆轮子汽油被驾驶的汽车被制造了在不列颠由并且给予专利盘式制动器在城市的 Frederick 威廉 Lanchester 。电车由很小数量的制造商生产了。在美国 , 汽车在 19 世纪 90 年代使用了对氨基苯甲酸二 , 酒精燃料 ； 汽油(叫做汽油在美国和加拿大 ) 并且柴油引擎以后被实施了。许多美国农夫继续做他们自己的酒精燃料在玉米酒精平静 1919 年直到禁止 criminalized 酒精的生产。巴西是生产对氨基苯甲酸二跑的汽车的唯一的国家 , 从 70 年代晚期。 大众化 Cugnot 的发明最初地看了少许应用在他的当地法国 , 并且创新的中心通过了对英国 , 1801 年理查 Trevithick 跑一个蒸汽支架。这样车象手闸、多速度传输、和改善的速度和指点被开发了是正在流行一度 , 和下十年如此创新。一些是商业成功的在提供大规 模运输 , 直到后退反对这些大迅速车导致通过法律自走车在公开路在英国必须被人类在之前徒步挥动一面红旗和吹垫铁。这有效地杀害了路自动发展在英国为大多数 19 世纪的剩余 , 因为发明者和工程师转移了他们的努力到改善在铁路机车里。红旗法律未被撤销直到 1896 年。 汽车许多品种集体赛跑构成体育的当中一个最普遍的类别在世界上。今天 , 美国有更多汽车比其他国家。虽然日本是一个主导的国家在汽车制造业 , 一般的日本公民无法买得起跑一辆汽车的高费用在停车位是缺乏的国家并且燃料是非常昂贵的。 有提议上一辆新汽车为自由或得到报酬驾 驶他们以换取显示广告在汽车 , 和因此只可利用到某些外形个体。 创新 1789 年第一汽车专利在美国被授予了 Oliver Evans； 1804 年 Evans 被展示他的第一辆成功的自走车 , 不仅是第一汽车在美国但和他的供给蒸汽动力的车能旅行在轮子在土地并且是第一两栖车 , 并且通过桨转动水。 10 大约 1870 年在维也纳 , Siegfried Marcus 把汽油发动机放在一简单的 handcart 上。 在 1895 年 11月 5 日 , 乔治 B. Selden 被授予了美国专利为专利做更多妨害比鼓励汽车发展在美国的 二冲程汽车引擎 。 1888 年主要突破来了以 Berta 苯历史的驱动。蒸 , 电 , 并且汽油供给动力的汽车争夺数十年 , 用汽油内燃机达到优势在 1910s 大规模 , 1902 年生产线制造业付得起的汽车由 Oldsmobile debuted, 由 Henry Ford 很大地然后扩展在 1910s. 早期的汽车 horseless 支架的经常指 , 和没有迷路离他们的前辈很远的地方设计。通过期间从 1900 年对中间 20 年代 , 汽车技术的发展是迅速 , 适当一部分对小制造商的一个巨大的 (上百 ) 数字所有竞争获取世界的 注意。关键发展包括电燃烧和电自动起动装置 (两个由查尔斯 Kettering, 1910-1911 为Cadillac Motor Company), 独立悬浮 , 和四轮闸。 在 30 年代以前 , 大多数技术被使用在汽车里发明了 , 虽然它再经常被重创了在以后的日子和相信了对别人。例如 , 1934 年前轮驱动由 Andre Citro5en 再介绍以牵引 Avant 的发射 , 虽然看起来几年及早在路汽车里由 Alvis 和绳子做 , 并且在赛车里由米勒 (和可以出现早在 1897) 。在 1930 年以后 , 汽车制造厂的数量尖 锐下降了作为产业 巩固和成熟。自 1960 年以来 , 制造商的数量依然是实际上恒定 , 和创新减慢。很大程度上 , 新 汽车技术是提炼在更加早期的工作 , 虽然这些提炼是有时很广泛的至于使原始的工作几乎无法认出。这的首要例外是电子引擎管理 , 加入宽用途在 60 年代 , 当电子零件变得足够便宜被大量生产和足够坚固性处理汽车的苛刻的环境。由Bosch 显现出 , 这些电子系统使汽车猛烈地减少尾气放射当增加效率和力量。 式样转换和设计变动 汽车不是仅仅连续地被完善的机械设计 ； 从 20 年代几乎所有被大量生产遇见市场 , 因 此营销计划和制造遇见他们经常控制了汽车设计。这是建立汽车不同的牌子想法由你生产牢固的 Alfred P. Sloan, 以便买家能 搬走 当他们的时运改善了。牌子互相分享了零件以便更大的生产容量导致低成本为各价格范围。例如 , 在 50 年代 , 薛佛列汽车与 Pontiac 分享了敞篷、门、屋顶 , 和窗口 ； 30 年代的 LaSalle, 乘卡迪拉克卖 , 使用了更加便宜的机械零件由 Oldsmobile 分裂做。 他并且设想了逐年式样转换的概念 , 成为 3 年的周期。在周期的第二该年 , 汽车的表面出现改变了附带 ； 为三 , 主要变动发生了 , 即 , 防御者模子为 1957 年薛佛列汽车必须被修改引起稀薄 , 针对性的飞翅和似方形的前灯住房。在下个周期 , 门、屋顶、树干 , 和悬浮经常会必须被再设计。工厂和逐年工作计划必须被专门研究容纳这11 些转换。 样式变得统治为大三个汽车制造者在美国 , 虽然欧洲人变牢固不混合亦不能买得起转换。在 50 年代以后 , 当美国企业应付了高压缩 V-8 引擎、自动传输 , 和空调的技术问题 , 投资转移了到遇见市场为非技术性的事态。这作为 计划的废弃被批评了 , 虽然由这它意味汽车简单地会被制作出去样式而不是技术上 真正地被超过了。例如 , 唯一 60 年代的那些少量美国汽车与前轮驱动或一个后方引擎有充分地独立后方悬浮因为 Hotchkiss 驱动更加便宜 , 并且人们被用于它。这样的 malinvestment 把美国企业留在无准备为 70 年代和进口的豪华汽车的上升的石油危机在 80 年代。 章程 在几乎每个国家 , 法律被颁布了治理机动车的操作。大多数这立法 , 包括极限在允许的速度和路的其它规则 , 被设计保证交通流畅流程和同时保护车居住者、骑自行车者 , 和步行者安全。 1965 年 , 在加利福尼亚 , 立法被介绍调控尾气放射 , 一 这样的立法在世界上。回答这新兴趣在环境和公共安全问题上 , 运输部 (小点 ) 并且环境保护代办处 (EPA) 两个介绍了立法在 1968 极大地修改汽车发展路线。因为美国市场是最大的在世界 (和加利福尼亚最大的市场在美国 ), 制造商全世界被迫适应。第一次 , 保险装置象控制在有害的放射是必须的 , 。在这立法之前 , 甚而安全带由许多制造者认为额外费用选择。其它国家被介绍随后了而来他们自己的安全和环境立法。及时 , 遇见章程成为了主要挑战为工程师设计新汽车。在十年从 1975 年到 1985 年 , 世界的制造者奋斗遇见新章程 , 一些生产的不标准的汽车以被减少的可靠性结果。但是 , 在这个期间以前 , 大家学会了怎么处理最近被调控的环境。制造商发现 , 安全和环境决定一切论卖了汽车 , 并且一些开始了介绍环境和安全前进在他们自己的主动性。 环境改善 在第一环境前进之中是所谓的供选择的燃料为内燃机 , 是许多年。及早在汽车历史上 , 在汽油广泛是可利用的在壁角泵浦之前 , 汽车运行了在许多燃料 , 包括煤油(石蜡 ) 并且煤炭气体。酒精燃料被使用了在赛车里在和在第二次世界大战之后之前。今天 , 甲醇和对氨基苯甲酸二被使用当汽油增量剂在一些国家 , 著名地在 澳洲和美国。在国家以更加温暖的气候 , 譬如巴西 , 酒精从甘蔗被获得经常被使用作为替补燃料。 在许多国家 , 天然气丰富的供应看见了甲烷销售作为压缩的天然气 (CNG) 并且丙烷销售作为液化石油气 (LPG) 沿着汽油和柴油燃料从 70 年代。当一个标准汽车引擎将跑在这些燃料以非常低尾气放射 , 有一些表现区别 , 著名地损失力量由于供选择的12 燃料的更低的能量内含。需要装备加油站和车以被加压的船举行这些气体燃料和更加严密的安全检查 , 意味 , 他们是只经济的当使用为长途 , 或如果有设施刺激。他们是最经济的汽油有高税收的地方并 且供选择的燃料不。 供选择的燃料和