大学生英语写作必备知识.docx

1.记叙文的展开(1) Considering purpose and audience: keep in mind that your story should deal with an event or a topic that will appeal to your audience.(2) Development through prewriting: freewriting is a helpful prewriting technique. As you think about the story you want to relate, many ideas will crowd into your mind.(3) Development through revising. 摘自美国大学英语写作2.描写性文章的展开：选准话题，考虑读者The main purpose of a descriptive essay is to make readers see or hear, taste, smell or feelwhat you are writing about. Vivid details are the key to descriptive essays, enabling your audience to picture and experience what you describe. As you start to think about your own descriptive essay, choose a topic that appeals to at least one of your senses. When selecting your topic, consider how much your audience already knows about it. Once you have selected your topic, focus on the goal or purpose of your essay. 摘自美国大学英语写作3.写作前的准备工作，应该考虑的一些问题(1)Understanding the nature and length of an assignment;(2)Knowing your subject;(3)Knowing your purpose and audience;(4)Determining your point of view;(5)Using peer review;(6)Doing a personal review. 摘自美国大学英语写作4.修改短文遵循四个原则(1)Unity;(2)Support; (3)Coherence;(4)Sentence skills.If you advance a single point and stick to that point, your paper will have unity; if you support the point with specific evidence, your paper will have support; if you organize and connect the specific evidence, your paper will have coherence; if you write clear, error-free sentences, your paper will demonstrate effective sentence skills. 摘自美国大学英语写作5.写作时要评估读者已有知识When writing an essay, try to remember that your instructor is not the only member of your audience. Although the instructor is often the only person who will read the finished product, customizing a paper to his or her level of knowledge can run the risk of leaving out important information, since many instructors know more about your topic than the average reader would. In addition, omitting information that your instructor already knows can result in a weak or unbalanced paper. However, if you assume that your reader is less knowledgeable than you, you are likely to provide more details and better explanations, which usually results in a much stronger paper.摘自英语写作教程从创新思维到批判思维6.任务描写的两个目的Generally speaking, the objective of describing a person is twofold: to portray the person vividly so that readers can imagine what he or she looks like, and to show how the person is significant in your life. Although your writing will reveal something about yourself and your relationship with the person, the focus should remain fixed on the person you are describingphysical appearance, typical behavior, way of speaking, specific anecdotes, etc. For example, suppose that you want to write a descriptive essay about your grandfather. You decide to write about his physical appearance and ways of living. To achieve this, you might describe his rough and gnarled4 hands, a result of his lifelong labor, but you might also describe how he would hold your hands so gently with his rough hands when having a conversation or taking a walk with you.摘自英语写作教程从创新思维到批判思维7.倒着读，检查文章Proofreading means checking the final, edited draft of your paper closely for typos and other careless errors. A helpful strategy is to read your paper backward, from the last sentence to the first. This helps keep you from getting caught up in the flow of the paper and missing small mistakes. 摘自美国大学英语写作8.写记叙文时要注意事件时长When you write a personal narrative, the duration of the event about which youre writing becomes a raw resource; you can use it, alter it, and control it. Of course, you could write a “straight” narrative that sticks closely to chronological time, but very few narrative topics work well this way. Think about it: you can read the body paragraphs of a 600-word essay in less than five minutes. Do you want to write your essay about a five-minute life experience? Perhaps, but searching for such a topic would truly restrict your opportunities.摘自英语写作教程从创新思维到批判思维9.描述过往经验的意义Why do we write about our past experiences? Perhaps out of nostalgia for the past, or perhaps to make sense of the past. When we write about significant events in our lives, we come to know ourselves better, bringing into focus whats truly important to us and clarifying our beliefs and values. We also examine the forceswithin ourselves and in our social structuresthat have shaped our lives. In a word, a personal experience essay can help us explore, deepen, and complicate our perceptions of the world.摘自英语写作教程从创新思维到批判思维10.名言引用 法国思想家、散文家Montaigne 曾说：“I quote others in order the better to express my own self.”。在英语写作中，恰当地引用至理名言来证明自己文章中的观点更具有说服力，可以使问题和观点的阐述更为深刻有力，有时会取得画龙点晴的效果。引文一定要准确无误，与内容紧密相关，不能断章取义、牵强附会，并要正确地使用标点符号。如果用引语来证明自己的观点，就需要通过转述动词(reporting verb) 用不同的短语和从句把引语自然流畅地融入到自己的论点表述中。摘自新世纪实用英语写作（第三版）11.程序描述 程序描述是描写和叙述一系列导致某一特定结果的连续发生的过程，即在一段时间内根据事情发生的先后顺序，或者应该遵循的程序或步骤逐步描述。这种段落扩展方法也称为“how to paragraph”或“process paragraph”，常为科技文章所采用，主要描述实验、生产、操作和制造等具体清晰的过程。 在使用这种方法时，应注意动词的时态和语态。程序描述由于客观性较强，多使用被动语态。 在描述一个过程或一个步骤时，经常用现在时的被动语态，这是一种最基本的描述。当报告一个过去的特定程序时，常常用过去时的被动语态。如果描述不涉及过程或步骤，常用一般现在时的主动语态。在叙述一个过程时，偶尔也用一般过去时的主动语态。注意在描述一个过程或报告一个程序时，次第顺序是非常重要的，信号词如first，second，next，finally 等常用于这种类型的描述。 摘自新世纪实用英语写作（第三版）12.段落扩展段落的扩展就是围绕段落主题句，用重要和相关的细节材料对段落的主题加以阐述、论证、说明或引申。段落扩展的方法有许多种，比较常用的有10 种：描述、定义、例证、划分与分类、比较与对照、因果关系、论证、图表数据、引证和综合法。摘自新世纪实用英语写作（第三版）13.文章结构和注意事项 大部分文章都由开篇、主干、结尾三部分组成。通常开篇（引言）和结尾（结论）只需一个段落，而主干往往需要数个段落。 开头的段落（引言）要引人入胜，要能够激起读者对文章的兴趣、关注和好奇心，或提供必要的背景知识。撰写文章的开篇往往是最难的，作者必须想好从何处说起，向哪个方面展开。 文章的中间部分（即主干）应条理清楚地摆出作者的观点和实例。主干通常由数段组成，段落的先后次序取决于文章的主题或类型。如叙述文可以按照时间顺序排列，而说明文的段落往往按照观点的重要性来排列，把次要的放在前面，重要的放在后面，最重要的应在最后出现。也就是说，用递进的方法使文章在高潮中结束。 结尾段落主要是重申或总结讨论过的要点，不再提出新的观点或问题。收尾部分应内容充实，简短有力，应能画龙点睛，发人深省。开头和结尾段落最好能互相呼应，如在开头的段落提出一个问题，在结尾的段落应给出答案。 摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）14.作文类型概述 描写文主要写的是外观和情感，记叙文写的是事件和经历。而说明文所涉及的主要是过程和关系。人们描述某物的外观时，要用描写文，但是要讲解此物是如何制作的，如何使用，可能如何变化时，就要用说明文了。记叙文谈论一个历史事件时，应叙述事件本身，事件发生的时间、地点以及与事件有关的人物。说明文讨论的则是事件发生的原因及后果，其性质和历史意义。 在动笔前应做好充分的准备。写作犹如盖房，通常建筑工人在动工前手头都有蓝图并准备好了足够的材料。写作者在下笔前也应事先有个规划，同时要收集足够的资料。 摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）15.如何修改和编辑句子When revising sentences in a paper so that they flow smoothly and clearly, you need to edit the paper for mistakes in grammar, punctuation, mechanics, usage, and spelling. Here are the most common methods:(1)Write complete sentences rather than fragments;(2)Do not write run-ons;(3)Use verb forms correctly;(4)Make sure that subject, verbs, and pronouns agree;(5)Eliminate faulty modifiers;(6)Use pronoun forms correctly;(7)Use capital letters where needed;(8)Use the following marks of punctuation correctly: apostrophe, quotation marks, comma, semicolon, colon, hyphen, dash, parentheses;(9)Use correct manuscript form;(10)Eliminate slang, clichs, and pretentious words;(11)Check for possible spelling errors;(12)Eliminate careless errors.摘自美国大学英语写作16.如何变换句型The following are four methods you can use to revise simple sentences, making them more complex and sophisticated:(1)Add a second complete thought (coordination);(2)Add a dependent thought (subordination);(3)Begin with a special opening word or phrase;(4)Place adjectives or verbs in a series.摘自美国大学英语写作17.如何修改句子The following strategies will help you to revise your sentences effectively:(1)Use parallelism; (2)Use a consistent point of view;(3)Use specific words;(4)Use active verbs;(5)Use concise words;(6)Vary your sentences.摘自美国大学英语写作18.好作文的标准 作文和段落一样，应该具有一致性，也就是说，文中所有的事例、观点都涉及并有助于表达文章的论题或中心思想。无关的内容，尽管有趣，也应割舍。人们在说话、做报告时可以离题插几句与主题无关的话，但是写作时不可如此。作文的各个段落都应该有各自的中心思想，段落的安排顺序应该合乎逻辑，这样文章才能成为有机的整体。文章如何展开取决于题材和体裁，一个办法是按照段落表达的观点的重要性来安排，把最重要的放在最后，文章以高潮收尾。写文章和绘画一样，各部分的比例应协调。主要的事例、观点所占篇幅应大于次要的事例、观点。文章中间的主干部分大约占全文篇幅的 70% 80%比较合适。开篇和结尾固然重要，但须简洁。好作文应该有重要、有趣、新鲜的内容，而且语言表达清楚、准确、得体。摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）19.段落描写 一个段落恰如一篇微型文章，它应该具有一致性、内容连贯并且展开得法。一致性指段落中的各句都紧紧围绕同一个中心或主题。如有必要另辟主题则须重起一段。内容连贯要求文字条理清晰，层次结构清楚，句与句之间有内在的逻辑关系。另外，一个展开得法的段落应运用一种或几种恰当的展开方法。要展开一个段落，方法有多种，如通过比较和对比展开，或按过程顺序展开，等等。 段落需要事先设计好：首先，要定下一个主题或一个中心意思，并用一句完整的话表达出来（即主题句）；其次，选择有助于阐述这一中心意思的细节、例子或事实；最后，把这些细节按逻辑顺序排好。有了这个大纲，段落的初稿就完成了一半。 段落的展开有多种方式。比如，可以按时间顺序，或按过程、空间顺序来叙述；或通过举例、对比、因果、分类等方式来展开段落。 摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）20.避免歧义和表达不清楚的句子When writing a paper, we try to avoid using ambiguous sentences. A paper with vague sentences will leave the reader lost and without a clear understanding of your topic. Instead, our writing should contain specific, concrete details to help the reader visualize what we are discussing and hold the readers attention. Using the RENNS model, developed by Lynn Quitman Troyka, can help us make our writing more specific. RENNS stands for Reasons, Examples, Names, Numbers, and Senses.摘自英语写作教程从创新思维到批判思维21.用细节呈现胜于用语言描述To show more than tell is to write in a manner that allows the reader to experience the story through a characters action, words, thoughts, senses, and feelings rather than through the narrators summarization. When applying “show more than tell,” the writer unveils the character by what that character says and does. It can be done by writing scenes, describing characters actions, revealing character through dialogue, and using the five senses whenever possible. If we say, “Mary had a broken leg,” readers cannot feel anything, but if we describe a bare bone sticking through pale skin, readers experience the pain along with the character. We all know the saying that actions speak louder than words, especially telling words. When done well, showing reveals character and enables readers to feel as if they are part of the event.摘自英语写作教程从创新思维到批判思维22.用细节呈现胜于用语言描述To show more than tell is to write in a manner that allows the reader to experience the story through a characters action, words, thoughts, senses, and feelings rather than through the narrators summarization. When applying “show more than tell,” the writer unveils the character by what that character says and does. It can be done by writing scenes, describing characters actions, revealing character through dialogue, and using the five senses whenever possible. If we say, “Mary had a broken leg,” readers cannot feel anything, but if we describe a bare bone sticking through pale skin, readers experience the pain along with the character. We all know the saying that actions speak louder than words, especially telling words. When done well, showing reveals character and enables readers to feel as if they are part of the event.摘自英语写作教程从创新思维到批判思维23.结尾的常用方法Here are common methods of conclusion:(1) End with a summary and final thought;(2) Include a thought-provoking question or short series of questions, such as:A. Why the subject of your paper is important;B. What might happen in the future;C. What should be done about the subject;D. Which choice should be made(3) End with a prediction or recommendation.摘自美国大学英语写作24.开篇的常用方法Here are some common methods of introduction:(1) Begin with a broad, general statement of your topc and narrow it down to your thesis statement;(2) Start with an idea or a situation that is the opposite of the one you will develop;(3) Explain the importance of your topic to the reader;(4) Use an incident or a brief story;(5) Ask one or more questions;(6) Use a quotation.摘自美国大学英语写作25.如何写简历(1) Your resume, along with your letter of application, is your introduction to a potential employer. First impressions count, so make the resume neat!a. Type the resume on good-quality letter paper;b. Proofread very carefully for sentence skills and spelling mistakes;c. Be brief and to the point;d. Use a model format;e. Start with your most recent education or employment. (2) Your resume should point up strengths, not weaknesses; (3) You can list the names of your references directly on the resume. Be sure to get the permission of people you cite before listing their names. 摘自美国大学英语写作26.避免固化思维的方法 Another way to escape from fixed ways of thinking is track switching. Similar to changing the entry point, track switching is changing from one track or pathway of thinking to another, which can be anything from a reversal to merely a changed entry point, or both. More specifically, you follow one track of thinking and then deliberately let your brain switch directions by changing the track or the entry point. Try to switch tracks as often as you can in problem-solving processes.摘自英语写作教程从创新思维到批判思维27.创意思维中的反推法 The reversal method in creative thinking is about generating ideas in the opposite direction, and no one says it better than de Bono (1970): “In the reversal method one takes things as they are and then turns them round, inside out, upside down, back to front. Then one sees what happens. It is a provocative rearrangement of information. You make water run uphill instead of downhill. Instead of driving a car the car leads you.”摘自英语写作教程从创新思维到批判思维28.如何写读书报告How to write a report:(1) a summary of the worka. Identify the author and title of the work and include in parentheses the publisher and publication date.b. Write an informative summary of the materials: condense the content of the work by highlighting its main points and key supporting points.(2) you reaction to the worka. How is the assigned work related to ideas and concerns discussed in the course?b. How is the work related to problems in our present-day world?c. How is the work related to your life, experiences, feelings and ideas?d. Evaluate the merit of the work: the importance of its points; its accuracy, completeness and organization. 摘自美国大学英语写作29.如何写摘要How to summarize an article:(1) Take a few minutes to preview the work, including the title, the subtitle, first and last several paragraphs and other items;(2) Read the article for all you can understand the first time through. Do not slow down or turn back. Check or mark main points and key supporting details;(3) Go back and reread more carefully the areas you have identified as most important;(4) Take notes on the materials. Concentrating on getting down the main ideas and the key supporting points;(5) Prepare the first draft of you summary.摘自美国大学英语写作30.转承词语转承词语不仅在段落内很重要，而且在段落之间也很重要。我们可以把段落之间的转承语看作是链条的连结，通过给两个段落中第二个段落的主题句加转承词语把两个段落连接起来。单个的词、短语或概括上个段落主题思想的从句都可以充当段落间的转承词语。摘自新世纪实用英语写作（第三版）31.多样性句型多样化对好文章来说是不可缺少的。好几句长短相同、结构相似、且用同一个名词或代词作主语的句子连在一起，必然会显得极其单调。为多样化起见，短句和长句，简单句、并列句和复合句，圆周句和松散句都应交叉使用；也可偶尔用一个问句、祈使句或感叹句。摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）32.必要的词不要放在句子中 句中不应有任何不必要的词。只要意思充分表达了，用词越少越好。用词过多只会使意思模糊，而不是更明晰。人们常常用多余的词，所以最好在写完一篇文章后，仔细检查一两遍，看看有没有一些词可删去而又不影响意思的表达。Wordy: It was blue in color.It was small in size.Mary is a quiet and careful woman.He returned in the early part of the month of August.Concise: It was blue.It was small.Mary is quiet and careful.He returned in early August. 摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）33.连贯性连贯性是指句子各部分之间具有清楚、合理的联系。句子中的词语和各部分应恰当地衔接，它们之间的关系应十分清楚。不连贯的句子通常有以下几种毛病：平行结构使用有误；代词指代不清楚；修饰语和被修饰语的关系不明确；在人称、数、语态、时态或语气上有混乱之处。摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）34.一致性对一个有效的句子来说，一致性是其第一特质。一个具有一致性的句子表达单一、完整的思想。它不包含不紧密相关的思想，也不表达本身不完整的思想。摘自英语写作手册（中文版）（第二版）35.具体细节的重要性 Specific details are valuable in two key ways. First, details excite the readers interest. They make writing a pleasure to read, for we all enjoy learning particulars about people, places, and things. Second, details serve to explain a writers point. They give the evidence needed for us to see and understand general ideas. The body paragraphs in essays contain only vague generalities, rather than the specific supporting details that are needed to engage and convince a reader. 摘自美国大学英语写作36.如何确定一个好论点？ Tips for writing good thesis statements:(1) Write statements, not announcements: a thesis statement must make a point about a limited subject;(2) Avoid statements that are too broad: the thesis statement should be focused enough that it can be effectively supported in a five-paragraph essay;(3) Avoid statements that are too narrow: a thesis statement must be broad enough to require support in an essay;(4) Make sure statements develop only one idea: the point of an essay is to communicate a single main idea to readers. 摘自美国大学英语写作 37.确定论点时的常见错误 When writing thesis statements, people often make mistakes that undermine their chances of producing and effective essay. One mistake is to simply announce the subject rather than state a true thesis. A second mistake is to write a thesis that is too broad, and a third is to write a thesis that is too narrow. A forth error is to write a thesis containing more than one idea.摘自美国大学英语写作38.如何修改文章Here are some quick hints that can help make revision easier. First, set your first draft aside for a while. You can then come back to the draft with a fresh, more objective point of view. Second, work from typed or printed text. Youll be able to see the paper more impartially in this way than if you were just looking at your own familiar handwriting. Next, read your draft aloud. Hearing how your writing sounds will help you pick up problems with meaning as well as with style. Finally, as you do all these things, add your thoughts and changes above the lines or in the margins of your paper. Your written comments can serve as a guide when you work on the next draft. 摘自美国大学英语写作39.构思的技巧Techniques for prewriting:(1) Freewriting: to write whatever comes into your mind;(2) Questioning: to generate ideas and details by asking questions about your subject, such as why? When? Where? Who? and How?(3) Making a list: to brainstorm