Punctuation1.doc

PunctuationI. The Purpose of PunctuationThe primary purpose of punctuation is to ensure the clarity and readability of writing. Punctuation clarifies sentence structure, separating some words and grouping others. It adds meaning to written words and guides the understanding of readers as they move through sentences. The rules set forth here cover many of the situations you will encounter in writing research papers. 1.1 CommaThe comma is used within a sentence to separate its elements to make the meaning clear. It is used:a. before a coordinating conjunction (and, or, but, for, yet, or so etc.) joining independent clauses in a sentenceCongress passed the bill, and the president signed it into law.The poem is ironic, for the poets meaning contrasts with her words.Take along a tape recorder, or you risk misquoting your interviewee.Very short independent clauses need not to be separated by a comma if they are closely connected in meaning. She was late and so missed the program.The bell rang and everyone left.b. to separate words, phrases, and clauses in a series.WORDSBoccaccios tales have inspired plays, films, operas, and paintings.She buys bread, butter, vegetables, and many other things from this supermarket.He spoke slowly, clearly, and emphatically.PHRASESA nurse has to work at night, on weekends, and on holidays.We ran into the airport, checked our luggage, raced to the boarding gate, gave the attendant our boarding passes, and collapsed in our seats.CLAUSESIn the Great Depression, millions lost their jobs, businesses failed, and charitable institutions closed their doors.But use semicolons when items in a series have internal commas.Pollsters focused their efforts on Columbus, Ohio; Des Moines, Iowa; and Saint Louis, Missouri.c. between coordinate adjectivesthat is, adjectives that separately modify the same noun.Critics praise the novels unaffected, unadorned style.The new regime imposed harsh, repressive laws.d. to set off a parenthetical comment, or an aside, if it is brief and closely related to the rest of the sentence. The vernacular, after all, was the language of everyday life.Tonights performance, Im sorry to say, has been canceled.e. to set off a nonrestrictive modifierthat is, a modifier that is not essential to the meaning of the sentences. A nonrestrictive modifier, unlike a restrictive one, could be dropped without changing the main sense of the sentence. Modifiers in the following three categories are either nonrestrictive or restrictive. Words in appositionNonrestrictiveThe color of the costumes, blue, acquires symbolic meaning in the story.Isabel Allende, the Chilean novelist, will appear at the arts forum tonight.RestrictiveThe color blue acquires symbolic meaning in the story.The Chilean novelist Isabel Allende will appear at the arts forum tonight.Clauses that begin with who, whom, whose, which, and thatNonrestrictiveScientists, who must observe standards of objectivity in their work, can contribute usefully to public-policy debate.RestrictiveScientists who receive the Nobel Prize sometimes contribute usefully to public-policy debate.Note that some writers prefer to use which to introduce nonrestrictive clauses and that to introduce restrictive clauses.Adverbial phrases and clausesNonrestrictiveHe had to leave his hometown, where he had lived ever since he was born.The ending is sad, as the narrator hinted it would be.An old lady, nodding and smiling, invited us in.RestrictiveThe novel takes place in a land where many languages are spoken.The ending is as the narrator hinted it would be.f. after a long introductory phrase or clause.PHRASEAfter years of anxiety over the familys finances, Linda Loman looks forward to the day the mortgage will be paid off. CLAUSEAlthough she was virtually unknown in her day, scholars have come to recognize the originality of her work. g. to set off alternative or contrasting phrases.A determined, even obsessed, taxi driver tells of his ambitious.It is Julio, not his mother, who sets the plot in motion.h. to separate the tag from the statement in tag questions:Its a fine day, isnt it?i. to indicate omission in sentences:Thales thought water was the beginning of everything; Anaximenes, air; Heraclitus, fire.Reading exercises ones eyes; speaking, ones tongues; while writing, ones mind.j. to separate “yes” or “no” from other parts of an answer:Yes, I like it very much.No, I dont think so.Note: To prevent misreading. Compare the following pairs of sentences and you will see sentence A is misleading because it needs a comma to separate different elements.a. Ever since he has devoted himself to athletics.b. Ever since, he has devoted himself to athletics.II. PeriodThe period (full stop) is used:(1) to end declarative and mildly imperative sentences.Everyone should obey the law.Knowledge is powerPut a gram of boldness into everything you do.(2) to end indirect questions:He wondered if she would be able to come in time.They wondered how many attempts have been made to climb Mt. Everest.(3) to denote most abbreviations and initials:U.S.A.Mr., Mrs., Dr., Ph.D., a.m. and p.m.Abbreviations not requiring periods include: address abbreviations for states, such CA and NY; names of some organizations and government agencies, such as CBS and FBI, and acronyms (initials pronounced as words), such as NASA and CARE. Ms. Yuan, who works at NASA, lectured to Dr. Ariass physics class yesterday at 9:30 A.M.(4) to end short answers like “yes” or “no”:“Do you know it?” “No.”“You will really come?” “Sure.”III SemicolonsThe semicolon is used:a. between independent clauses not linked by a conjunction:The coat is tattered beyond repair; still, Akaky hopes the tailor can mend it.The holidays are over; we must get down to our studies.The conjunctive adverbs (so, therefore, however, hence, nevertheless, moreover, accordingly, besides, also, thus, still otherwise, etc.) are inadequate join two independent clauses. A semicolon is required in such cases instead of a comma.Buses are always crowded; hence, he prefers to cycle.The invention brought him fame; moreover, it brought him money.b. to separate clauses when commas are inadequate:In recognition of his services to the people, he was given an extra bonus; awarded a medal, a certificate of honor; and promoted once more.c. between items in a series when the items contain internal commas:Present at the symposium were Henri Guillaume, the art critic; Sam Brown, the Daily Tribune reporter; and Maria Rosa, the conceptual artist.Before he came, we had expected him to help us; but when he was with us, he didnt do much.IV. ColonsThe colon is used at the end of an independent clause to focus attention on the words following the colon. After a colon, we often write lists, appositives, and direct quotations. Leave only one space after a colon, not two. A colon is used:Before listsUse a colon to introduce a listLibraries have two kinds of periodicals: bound periodicals and current periodicals.I need the following groceries: eggs, milk, and coffee.The causes of the U.S. Civil War were as follows: the economic domination of the North, the slavery issue, and the issue of states rights versus federal intervention. Before appositivesUse a colon after an independent clause to direct attention to an appositive (a word or word group that renames another word or word groups). A doctor has two important abilities: the ability to listen and the ability to analyze.The plot is founded on deception: the three main characters have secret identities.He had one great love in his life: himself.Before long quotationsUse a colon to introduce a quotation longer than three lines. This type of quote is indented on both sides, and no quotation marks are used. As Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable state in their book The History of the English Language: There is no such thing as uniformity in language. Not only does the speech of one community differ from that of another, but the speech of different individuals of a single community, even different members of the same family, is marked by individual peculiarities.Use a colon to introduce a quotation that is independent from the structure of the main sentence. R.Quirk points out: “Like ellipsis, substitution is a device for abbreviating and for avoidingrepetition. In this second respect, it is similar to the use of lexical equivalents that are notidentical repetition.”Before subtitlesUse a colon between the main title and the subtitle of a book, article, or play. A popular book on nonverbal communication is Samovar and Porters Intercultural Communication: A Reader. The title of an article from the New York Times is “Man on Mars: Dream or Reality?”But a verb or preposition that performs the same introductory function as a colon makes the colon unnecessary.The novels on the reading list include , ., .(The verb include performs the introductory function).The reading list includes such novels as .(The preposition as performs the introductory function).In expressions of time or dayUse a colon between the numbers for hours and minutes when indicating the time of day.Helen left the class at 12:30.Their plane arrived at 1:40 a.m., six hours late.After formal salutationsUse a colon after the salutation of a formal letter.Dear Professor Einstein:Dear Customer Relations:To Whom It May Concern:In informal letters, use a comma.Dear Mom,Dear Mark,Caution1. Do not use a colon to introduce a list after the verb to be unless you add the following or as follows. To me, the most important things in life are: good health, a happy home life, and a satisfying occupation. (incorrect) To me, the most important things in life are good health, a happy home life, and a satisfying occupation.2. Do not use a colon after a preposition. Use a colon only at the end of an independent clause. After a long day at work, I look forward to: enjoying a quiet dinner at home, playing with my children, and watching a little TV.V ApostropheThe apostrophe plays three major roles: it helps to form the possessive of nouns and a few pronouns; it stands for one or more omitted letters; and it helps to form the plurals of letters and numerals. It does not help form plurals of nouns or the possessive case of personal pronouns.1. When nouns and indefinite pronouns do not end in s, add s to show possession. The deans duties included working closely with the resident assistants.They care about their childrens futures.The accident was really no ones fault.2. When singular nouns end in s, add s to show possession. The tour buss passengers switched to a train in Athens. That businesss system for handling complaints is inefficient. Charles Dickenss story “A Christmas Carol” is a perennial favorite at Christmas time.3. When a plural noun ends in s, use only an apostrophe to show possession. The visitors comments included high praise for the park rangers at Yellowstone. The newspapers have publicized several medicines severe side effects recently. The boys bicycles are stored in the basement.4. In compound words, add s to the last word. His mother-in-laws corporation just bought out a competitor. The tennis players strategy was brilliant. They wanted to hear somebody elses interpretation of the rule.5. In individual possession, add s to each noun. Olgas and Joannes books are valuable. After the fire, the doctors and the lawyers offices had to be rebuilt.6. In joint or group possession, add s to only the last noun. Olga and Joannes books are valuable. Anne and Glen Smiths article on solar heating interests me.Do not use an apostrophe with the possessive forms of personal pronoun.Some pronouns have specific possessive forms. Do not use an apostrophe with these forms.PronounPossessive form(s)hehissheher, hersititsweour, oursyouyour, yourstheytheir, theirswhowhoseBe specially alert to its and its, as well as whos and whose, which occur often in English and are frequently confused. Apostrophe caution: The following forms do not exist in English, so do not use them: its, his, hers, yours, theirs, whos.Use an apostrophe to stand for omitted letters, numbers, or words in contractions.Common contractionsIm, hes shes itsYoure, were, theyreIsnt, arent, wasnt, werentHell, shell, youll, well, theyllWont, didnt, Id, Ive, weve, youve, theyveWhos, theres, lets, cant, oclockApostrophes also indicate the omission of the first two numerals in years. Use this contraction only in informal writing.The class of 50 is having a reunion this year.They moved to Florida after the blizzard of 78.Use an apostrophe to form plurals of letters, numerals, symbols, and words used as terms.Billie always has trouble printing Ws.The address includes six 6s.The fors in the paper were all misspelled as fours.For the plural form of years, two styles are acceptable: with an apostrophe (1980s) or without (1980s). Whichever form you prefer, use it consistently.VI Quotation marksMost commonly, quotation marks enclose direct quotationsspoken or written words from an outside source. Quotation marks also set off some titles, and they can call attention to words used in special senses. Always use quotation marks in pairs, and be especially careful not omit the second (closing) quotation mark. Double quotation marks (“”) are standard. Single quotation marks () are used only for quotation marks within quotation marks. In print, opening and closing quotation marks look slightly different from each other, but they look identical when made on a typewriter or computer printer. You will find examples of both print and of type-written quotation marks in this part.When you quote the words of others in your writing, be sure to remain alert to these important matters:l Incorporate quotations correctly and smoothly into your writing:l Avoid plagiarismthe use of another persons words as if they were your own:l Document direct quotations correctly1. Use double quotation marks to enclose short quotations A quotation is considered “short” if it can be typed or hand-written to occupy no more than four lines on a page. Short quotations are enclosed in double quotation marks. Longer quotations are not enclosed in quotation marksthey are displayed. A displayed quotation starts on a new line, and all typewritten lines indent ten spaces.Short quotationPersonal space “moves with us, expanding and contracting according to the situation in which we find ourselves” (Fisher, Bell, and Baum 149).Long quotationRobert Sommer, an environmental psychologist, uses literary and personal analogies to describe personal space: Like the porcupines in Schopenhauers fable, people like to be close enough to obtain warmth and comradeship but far enough away to avoid pricking one another. Personal space has been likened to a snail shell, a sop bubble, an aura, and “breathing room.” (26)2. Use single quotation marks for quotations within quotations When you want to quote four lines or less and the original words already contain quotation marks, use double quotation marks at the start and end of the directly quoted words. Then, substitute single quotation marks () wherever there are double quotation marks in the original source.Original sourcePersonal space has been likened to a snail shell, a soap bubble, an aura, and “breathing room.” -Robert Sommer, Personal Space: The Behaviroral Bases of Design, page 26Single quotation marks within double quotation marksRobert Sommer, an environmental psychologist, lists comparisons of personal space to “a snail shell, a soap bubble, an aura, and breathing room” (26).Exercise 1Translate the following two sentences1. I have a young brother who is a doctor. I have a young brother, who is a doctor. 2. Eat children.Eat, children.Exercise 2Put the punctuations in the following sentences1. Andrew did not accept the job offer he wants to go to graduate school.2. Computer use is increasing computer crime is too.3. Skiiing is dangerous nevertheless millions of people ski.4. I have never been to Asia in fact I have never been outside the country.5. One cannot learn to produce a sound from an explanation only or get a correct idea of a flavor from a description a sound must be heard a color seen a flavor tasted an odor inhaled.6. If she did not speak with Rebecca on the tender subject she compensated herself with long and intimate conversation with Mrs Blenkinsop the house keeper who dropped some hints to the ladys-maid who may have cursorily mentioned the matter to the cook who carries the news I have not doubt to all the tradesmen.7. Even when the repetition is a part of the writers original plan consideration is necessary before it can be allowed to pass it is implied in the terms rhetorical or significant repetition that the words repeated would ordinarily be either varied or left out the repetition that is to say is more or less abnormal and whatever is abnormal may be objectionable in a single instance and is likely to become so if it occurs frequently.8. That that is is that that is not is not that that is is not that t