语言学概论 总结.doc

语言学概论 总结Chapter 1 - IntroductionPart One Definition of language Design features of language Functions of language Part Two Definition of linguistics The scope of linguistics Important distinctions in linguistics Exercises:1）Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language ? (2005)A. arbitrariness任意性 B. productivity C. cultural transmission D. finiteness有限性2）The distinction between parole言语and langue 语言was made by _. (2006)A. Halliday C. Saussure索绪尔（瑞士语言学家）B. Chomsky 乔姆斯基（美国语言学家，转换生成语法的创始人）D. Bloomfield布洛姆菲尔德（美国语言学家教育家） 考点：语言流派的主要代表人物、四对概念的区分。3）Language is a tool of communication. The symbol “high way closed” on a high way serves _. (2010)A. an expressive function表达功能B. an informative function信息功能C. a performative function行事/施为功能D. a persuasive function劝说功能考点：语言的基本功能。信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能、寒暄功能、娱乐功能。其中最重要的是信息功能。4）The function of the sentence A nice day, isnt it? is _.A. informative B. phatic寒暄功能C. directive指示功能 D. performative1.2.1 What is language? P7-8Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。1） Language is a system.Systematic- rule-governed受规则制约的, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules； cant be combined at will. E.g. *bkli， *I apple eat.2）Language is arbitrary.Arbitrary- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes表示. E.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.3）Language is symbolic符号的in nature.Symbolic- words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention惯例. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”-by Shakespeare 4）Language is primarily vocal.Vocal- the primary medium基本媒介is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. 5）Language is human-specific. 语言是人类特有的Human-specific- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess. E.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.1.2.2 The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett):P8-101） Arbitrariness 任意性2） Productivity/Creativity 创造性3） Duality 二重性4） Displacement移位性5） Cultural transmission文化传递性1） Arbitrariness-No logical (motivated有积极性的or intrinsic固有的) connection between sounds and meanings.Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopyn Apes ep gibber db.猴子唧唧叫n Roosters crow. 公鸡喔喔叫n Hens cluck. 母鸡咯咯嗒n Chicks peep. 小鸡唧唧唧n Bulls bellow. Cows moo.老牛哞哞哞n Ducks quack kwk.鸭子嘎嘎嘎n Cats mew. 小猫喵喵叫n Frogs croak.青蛙呱呱呱n Goats bleat.小羊咩咩咩n Pigs grunt. 小猪呼噜噜n Mice squeak skwik. 老鼠吱吱叫n Dogs bark. 小狗汪汪叫Animals make much the same sounds around the world, but each language expresses them differently. English and Chinese cows sound the same, but not in English and Chinese! The arbitrary link between a linguistic sign语言符号and its meaning, however, is also conventional符合习俗的. 2) Productivity / Creativity -Peculiar to是特有的human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.Language is resourceful资源丰富的because of its duality二元性and its recursiveness rik:sivnis递归性. We can use it to create new meanings. Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly立即地understood by people who have never come across讲得清楚明白that usage before.The recursive nature递归性of language provides a potential to create an infinite number of sentences. For instance: He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who . This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt麦芽that lay in the house that Jack built. 3) Duality (double articulation) Lower level-sounds (meaningless)Higher level-meaning (larger units of meaning)二层性是指拥有两层结构这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。（Lyons, 1981) E.g. b-o-o-k (meaningless segments: lower level, secondary) Book (meaningful unit: higher level, primary) Questions:Can you think of some other systems with the property of duality? Why is this property generally assumed as central to language? Does animal language have this property? Hierarchy等级制度of language:The secondary level sounds(meaningless) syllables The primary level morphemes(meaningful) wordsphrasessentences ( etc.)4) Displacement-Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present (in time and space): real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away遥远的places. E.g. A gibbon长臂猿never utters发出 a call about something he ate last year.Animal communication is normally under “immediate stimulus control” （直接刺激控制）. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger. Human language is stimulus-free. What we are talking about need not be triggered by any external stimulus刺激 in the world or any internal state. 5) Cultural transmission-Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.The story of a wolf child狼孩, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language. 1.2.3 Functions of language:P10-121) referential ,refren()l (to convey message and information) (所指功能，即传达信息）2) poeticpetk (to indulge in language for its own sake)（诗学功能，即享受语言自身的乐趣）3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions)（情感功能，即表达态度，感觉和情感）4) conativekuntiv (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests)（意动功能，即通过指令和恳求说服和影响他人）5) phaticftk (to establish communion with others) （寒暄功能，即与他人建立交际）6) metalingual,metliwl (to clear up intentions and meanings). （元语言功能，弄清意图、词语和意义） 注：1）emotive (expressive) function: releases feelings. Swear words骂人话, obscenities猥亵, exclamation惊叹词, involuntary verbal言语的 reactions.2) phatic function: Good morning. How are you?Halliday哈利迪Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions元功能思想 of language.For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves (e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant敬上) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations. 1.1 What is Linguistics语言学?P1The scientific study of human languageAims of linguistic theory:What is knowledge of language? (Competence)How is knowledge of language acquired? (Acquisition)How is knowledge of language put to use? (Performance/language processing性能/语言处理)1.1.2 Main branches of linguisticsP2-3n Phonetics发音/语音学n Phonology音系/音韵学n Morphology形态学 Syntax句法n Semantics语义学n Pragmatics语用学The scope of linguistics1.1.3 Important distinctions in linguisticsP3-6 n Descriptive vs. prescriptive n Synchronic vs. diachronicn Speech vs. writing n Langue & parolen Competence and performance1) Descriptive vs. prescriptive Dont say X. People dont say X.The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in在于prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Descritptive: the linguists tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a large community actually conform遵照and does not seek to impose upon them other rules or norms of correctness. Prescriptive： the grammarians文法家 tries to lay down制定rules for the correct use of language and set the disputes over就进行辩论usage once and for all彻底地. ( right / wrong) Humorous grammar rules：Never end a sentence with a preposition.And dont start a sentence with a conjunction. It is wrong to ever split分离an infinitive不定式.No sentence fragments.2）Synchronic vs. diachronic A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. Synchronic study共时性研究- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study历时性研究- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time) 3） Speech vs. writingSpeech - primary medium of languageWriting - later developed4）Langue语言 vs. parole言语 (F. de Saussure)Langue - the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.Parole - the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.5) Competence and performance (Chomsky)Competence - the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language Performance - the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.6) Traditional grammar vs modern linguisticsTraditional grammar - prescriptive, written, Latin-based framework Modern linguistics - descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework Exercises for Chapter 11. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar for it is mostly _.A. prescriptive B. descriptive C. subjective D. Latin-based2. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as _.A. abnormal B. something to be feared C.natural D. unnatural3. Of the “words” listed below, _is not an English word. A. spin B. lkbi C.strikt D. desk4. The study of language development at some point in time is generally termed as _ linguistics.A. comparative比较的 B. applied C. synchronic D. diachronic5. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. bang B. photoC. typewriterD. rumble6. Modern linguistics give priority to speech because _.A. speech sounds are derived from writing systems.B. The spoken form is more basic than the written form.C. Writing precedes speech in English language.D. All the languages today have both spoken and written forms.7. Which of the following statements is not the concern of sociolinguists?A. The language a person uses reveals his social background.B. There exist social norms that determine the type of language to be used on a certain occasion.C. How does the human mind work when they use language.D. To investigate the social aspects of language.8. Language is _ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.A. systematic B. culturally transmitted C. intuitive凭直觉获知的 D. productive9. _ studies the internal structure of words and the rules that govern their formation.A. Phonology B. Semantics C. Syntax D. Morphology10. The study of language as a whole is often called _ linguistics.A. generalB. appliedB. generativeD. particular11. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the _ nature of language.A. productive B. dual C. arbitrary D. displacing12. Which of the following is not a major branch of linguistics?A. phonetics B. phonologyC. speech D. syntax13. The application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching is _.A. computational linguistics B. anthropological linguisticsC. mathematical linguistics D. applied linguistics14. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _.A. primaryB. correct C. secondaryD. stable15. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above16. A historical study of language is a _ study of language.A. synchronic B. diachronic C. prescriptive D. comparative17. Saussure took a (n)_ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a _ point of view.A. sociological,psychological B.psychological,sociologicalC. applied, pragmatic D. semantic and linguistic18. According to F. de Saussure, _ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. parole B. performanceC. langue D. Language19. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _ , rather than by instinct.A. learning B. teaching C. books D. both A and BChapter 2- Phonetics发音/语音学Objectives (教学目的):To draw your attention to the areas of the phonetic study.To assist you to know more about the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)国际音标.To help familiarize you with the factors involved in describing English consonants and vowels.2.1 The phonic medium of language P141. What is the difference between “the phonic medium of language” and “the speech sounds”?The phonic medium of language refers to the limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication. 语言的声音媒介The speech sounds refer to the individual sounds within the range of the phonic medium of language.The phonic medium of language FamilyThe speech sounds Family members2. Why is speech considered more basic than writing? Statistically, speech exists in every language while no written form exists in two thirds of the 5000 languages in the world.Historically, speech came into being much earlier than writing.Functionally, writing is invented to record speech.Individually, speech is acquired before writing.2.2 Phonetics P151. What is phonetics?Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. (Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics)Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, that is, all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages. 2. Discuss the relationship between articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics and acoustic phonetics in terms of the process of human linguistic communication.2.2.2 Organs of speech P15-171. What organs are involved in producing language?2. How are speech sounds produced? Human vocal tract 声道is just like a (extremely flexible) m musical instrument! The human vocal tract can be rapidly reshaped in many different ways to take on different resonating 产生共鸣的properties. The effect of this is to create the variety of different sounds in human speech. 3. The diagram of speech organs:1) Lips 2) Teeth3) Teeth ridge (alveolar) 齿龈4) Hard palate硬腭5)Soft palate (velum) 软腭6) Uvulaju:vjul小舌7)Tip of tongue舌尖8)Blade of tongue舌面1. 9 Glottal.)Back of tongue舌背10)Vocal cords声带11)Pharyngeal cavity咽喉12)Nasal cavity 鼻腔2.2.3 Orthographic representation正视表示法of speech soundsbroad and narrow transcriptions宽式和严式转写P17-181. What are main principles of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)? There should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound. The same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.2. What is the difference between narrow transcription (严式转写) and broad transcription (宽式转写) ? 1) Broad transcription is regarded as phonemic transcription（音位转写）. It is widely used in textbooks and dictionaries. Examples: /stop/ /top/ /plein/2)Narrow transcription is regarded as phonetic transcription（语音转写）. It is used to distinguish small difference in speech production. Examples: pat vs. spat for pot vs. spot Narrow transcription = broad transcription + diacritics,dakrtk变音符号Broad transcriptionNarrow transcriptionlips/lps/lpsslip/slp/slppills/plz/pzspill/spl/sp1) Broad transcription - used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics，e.g. clear l , pit 2) Narrow transcription - used by phonetician语言学者 for careful study, with diacritics，e.g. dark l , aspirated p 2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds P18-221.- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories: Vowels Consonants 2. What is the difference between a consonant and a vowel?3、Classification of consonants P19-20- English consonants may be classified according to three dimensions三维:1）The manner of articulation 2）The place of articulation3）Voicing1）The manner of articulation发音方法：stops/plosives 塞音 fricatives 擦音affricates 塞擦音 liquids 流音nasals 鼻音 glides/semivowels 滑音 2）The place of articulation发音部位：bilabial双唇音的 labiodental唇齿音的dental齿音的 alveolar齿龈音的palatal硬腭音的 velar软颚音的glottal喉音的1.Bilabial 2. Labiodental 3.Dental or interdental4. Alveolar 5. Palatoalveolar 6.Palatal7. Velar 8.Uvular 9.Glottal 4. The description of English consonants:1、 What are the 5 major factors involved in describing vowels?1) The position of the tongue in the mouth 2) The openness of the mouth.3) The shape of the lips.4) The length of the vowel5) The tongue movementExamples: ei a diphthong 双元音i: close front long/tense unrounded vowel (a monophthong单元音)2、Classification of vowels P20-22- English vowels can be divided into two large categories:1） Monophthongs or pure/single vowels2） Diphthongs or gliding vowels Front Vowels, central vowels and