语言学资料(机密级).doc

定义（Definition）Phonetics: It is the scientific study of speech sounds. It studies how speech sounds are articulated, transmitted, and received. Phonology: It is the study of how speech sounds function in a language. It studies the ways speech sounds are organized. Morphology: It is the study of the formation of words. It is a branch of linguistics which breaks words into morphemes. *Syntax: It deals with the combination of words into phrases, clauses and sentences. It is the grammar of sentence construction. Semantics: It is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in all its formal aspects. Words have several types of meaning. A sentence needs to be well formed both syntactically and semantically. Pragmatics: It can be defined as the study of language in use. It deals with how speakers use language in ways which cannot be predicted from linguistic knowledge alone, and how hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers. Linguistics: It can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human languages. It deals with a wide range of linguistic phenomena, analyzes them, and makes general statements about them. Language: It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 术语翻译（terms translation）14linguistics 语言学philology 语文学phonetics 语音学phonology 音位学morphology 形态学syntax 句法学semantics 语义学pragmatics 语用学sociolinguistics 社会语言学psycholinguistics 心理语言学macrolinguistics 宏观语言学stylistics 文体学text linguistics 文本语言学computational linguistics 计算语言学cognitive linguistics 认知语言学applied linguistics 应用语言学language 语言arbitrariness 随意性duality 二重性productivity 创造性interchangeability 互换性displacement 位移性specialization 特殊性cultural transmission 文化的传递性synchronic linguistics 共时语言学diachronic linguistics 历时语言学langue 语言parole 言语competence 语言能力performance 语言行为psychological construct 心理构建syntagmatic relations 横组合关系paradigmatic relations 纵聚合关系functionalism 功能主义formalism 形式主义speech organs 发音器官articulatory phonetics 发声语音学acoustic phonetics 声学语音学auditory phonetics 听觉语音学articulators 发音器官voiced sounds 浊音voiceless sounds 清音variations of sounds 音的变体elision 省音assimilation 同化phonemes 音位minimal pairs 最小对立体minimal sets 最小集合free variation 自由变体distinctive features 区别特征syllables 音节consonant clusters 辅音丛suprasegmental features 超音段特征stress 重音intonation 语调free morphemes 自由词素bound morphemes 黏着词素compounding 合成derivation 派生conversion 转类backformation 逆构词clipping 截短构词法blending 混合acronym 首字母拼音词initialism 首字母拼写词word classes 词类structural analysis 结构分析immediate constituent analysis 直接成分分析ideational function 意念功能interpersonal function 人际功能textual function 语篇功能naming theory 命名理论semantic triangle 语义三角stimulus response theory 刺激反应论sense 意义reference 指称conceptual meaning 概念意义connotative meaning 内涵意义social meaning 社会意义affective meaning 情感意义reflective meaning 反射意义collocative meaning 搭配意义thematic meaning 主位意义semantic fields 语义场componential analysis 成分分析homonymy 同形异义polysemy 一词多义homophony 同音异形异义synonymy 同义关系antonymy 反义关系hyponymy 上下义关系meronymy 整体部分关系entailment 蕴含关系presupposition 前提关系inconsistency 矛盾关系implicature 暗含关系micropragmatics 微观语用学deixis 指示语anaphora 回指macropragmatics 宏观语用学iteratives 重复词语cleft sentences 断裂句locutionary act 言内行为illocutionary act 言外行为perlocutionary act 言后行为the Cooperative Principle 合作原则conversational implicatures 会话含意the Politeness Principle 礼貌原则given information 已知信息new information 新信息topic 话题comment 述题contrast 对比cohesion 衔接substitution 替代ellipsis 省略conjunction 连词lexical cohesion 词汇衔接coherence 连贯discourse markers 话语标记adjacency 相邻对preference structure 优选结构presequences 前序列language varieties 语言的变体standard language 标准方言dialects 方言registers 语域pidgins 洋泾浜creoles 克里奥耳语lingua franca 共通语language planning 语言规划diglossia 双言bilingualism 双语制multilingualism 多语制code-switching 语码转换linguistic taboos 语言禁忌euphemisms 委婉语categorization 范畴化prototype theory 典型理论levels of categorization 范畴的层次conceptual metaphor 概念隐喻conceptual domain 概念域target domain 目标域source domain 始发域；原域conceptual metonymy 概念转喻figures and ground 图形与背景the frame and attention approach 框架与注意iconicity 象似性grammaticalization 语法化lexical change and prototypicality 词汇演变language acquisition 语言习得the behaviorist approach 行为主义方法the innateness approach 天赋取向法second language acquisition 二语习得contrastive analysis 对比分析error analysis 错误分析interlanguange 中介语fossilization 语言停滞/僵化language aptitude 语言学能cognitive style 认知风格field dependence 场依赖field independence 场独立personality traits 个性特征introversion 内向extroversion 外向learning strategies 学习策略辅音描述（consonants description）BilabialLabio-dentalDentalAlveolarPalatalVelarGlottalStopsVLptkVDbdgFricativesVLfshVDvzAffricatesVL(t)tVD(d)dNasalsVDmnLiquidsVDl, rGlidesVDwj重要概念区分（major conception distinguish）1. synchronic and diachronic linguisticsLanguage can be studied at a given point in time or over time. When we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries. 2. langue and paroleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue. Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech. Langue is the code, and parole is the message. 3. competence and performanceCompetence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is, the actual use of this knowledge. 4. syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsThe former refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements, which form linear sequences. The latter means the vertical relationship between forms, which might occupy the same particular place in a structure. 5. functionalism and formalismFunctionalism refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication. It considers the individual as a social being and investigates the way in which she/he acquires language and uses it in order to communicate with others in her or his social environment. Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations. It fixes on the forms of languages as evidence of the universals without considering how these forms function in communication and the ways of social life in different communities.画树形图（draw tree diagrams）回答问题（answer the questions）1. Q: Design features of language A: () arbitrariness: This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. () duality: It operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. This organization of language into two levelsa level of sounds which combine into a second level of larger unitsis called duality or double articulation. () productivity: This refers to mans linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before. () interchangeability: This refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease. () displacement: It is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time. By virtue of this feature man can talk about events, locations, and objects which are far removed from the present time and context. () specialization: It refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. () cultural transmission: Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire language. 2. Q: The Cooperative PrincipleA: The Cooperative Principle is a set of assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation. Its maxims:The Maxim of QualityTry to make your contribution one that is true, i.e.() Do not say what you believe to be false;() Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The Maxim of Quantity() Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange);() Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.The Maxim of RelationBe relevant.The Maxim of MannerBe perspicuous, i.e.() Avoid obscurity of expression;() Avoid ambiguity;() Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity);() Be orderly.3. Q: Cohesion and coherenceA: Cohesion is an important field of study in discourse analysis. It refers to the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements of a discourse. The key to the concept of coherence is not something which exists in the language, but something which exists in people. It is people who “make sense” of what they read and hear. They try to arrive at an interpretation which is in line with their experience of the way the world is. 4. Q: Individual differences in L2 acquisitionA: a. language aptitude;b. cognitive style: field dependence and field independence;c. personal traits;d. learning strategies.5. Q: Synonymy and antonymyA: a. dialectal synonyms;b. stylistic synonyms;c. synonyms that differ in emotive and evaluative meaning;d. collocational synonyms;e. gradable antonymy;f. complementary antonymy;g. converse antonymy.6. Q: Semantic meaningA: a. meaning as naming;b. meaning as concept;c. meaning as behavior;d. meaning as context;e. meaning as truth conditions;7. Q: Discourse analysisA: It is the study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations, interviews, etc. In discourse analysis one of the primary tasks is to explore the linguistic features which characterize discourses. 开放话题（open questions）Linguisticsis thescientificstudy of humanlanguage. Linguistics can be broadly broken into three categories or subfields of study: language form, language meaning, and language in context. The earliest knowndescriptive linguisticsactivities are said to have beenPaninisAshtadhyayiaround 500 BCE with the analysis ofSanskrit.The first subfield of linguistics is the study of language structure, orgrammar. This focuses on the system of rules followed by the speakers (or hearers) of a language. It encompassesmorphology(the formation and composition of words),syntax(the formation and composition of phrases and sentences from these words), and phonology(sound systems).Phoneticsis a related branch of linguistics concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds and non-speech sounds, and how they are produced and perceived.The study of languagemeaningis concerned with how languages employ logical structures and real-world references to convey, process, and assign meaning, as well as to