Contrastive linguistics英汉对比研究概念.doc

Contrastive linguistics 对比语言学a branch of linguistics which studies two or more languages synchronically, with the aims of discovering their differences and similarities(especially the former) and applying these findings to related areas of study.Particular attention should be paid to similarity on surface but difference in nature.Contrastive linguistics is also known as “contrastive analysis”(CA) or “contrastive studies”. These three terms are largely interchangeable. a linguistic system is made up of many layers or levels. These layers or levels are often considered to form a scale or hierarchy from lower levels containing the smallest linguistic units to higher levels containing larger linguistic units. So we have, from the lowest to the highest, such levels as phonetic level, phonological level, morphemic level, lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and pragmatic level. Features of the two typesTheoretical Contrastive Study . It is language independent. . It looks for universal categories in languages. Applied Contrastive Study It is language dependent. It is part of applied linguistics. The major task of it is to identify probable areas of difficulty. Psychological base of CA is behaviorism which was introduced by skinner which viewed first language acquisition as the formation of new habits acquired through repetition and strengthened by the reinforcement of correct responses. Linguistic base of CA is structural linguistics which believed that first learning may interfere second learning. tertium comparationis (TC) 共同对比基础/第三对比项/中间对比项 TC: a third thing related in some way to two things: sth. intermediate between two things criterion for comparison; common basis on which comparison can be made; presupposed similarity between languages against which differences can be meaningfully stated. A synthetic language is “characterized by frequent and systematic use of inflected forms to express grammatical relationships” 人工语言Derivation generally brings about three types of changes: changes in word form, in part of speech (word class), and in meaning. 派生Affixation: add prefix and suffix to a root 附加Reduplication: double part of or all of a root 加倍，重复Modification 1) vowel change 2) suppletion (total modification) 3) stress change 4) tonal modification 修改Affix deletion (back-formation)：delete a supposed affix in a long word 词缀删除Abbreviation 缩写synonymy: sameness or close similarity of meaning 同义hyponymy: relationship between a more general, inclusive word and a more specific word) 上下义semantic compatibility: overlapping of part of meaning 语义兼容semantic exclusion: exclusion of meaning 语义排斥Morphological processes: ways of word formations 形态过程Referential Meaning 参考意义 vs. Associative Meaning 联想意义Inflectional morphology 屈折形态inflectional categories gender, number, case, tense, aspect, voice and mood synthetic language 综合语: inflection, funtional words and word orderanalytic language 分析语: word order, functional wordsCategories for syntactic description1. unit: morphemes, words, phrases, clauses and sentences2. structure: arrangement of elements in a unit (syntagmatic relation 横组合关系). 3. class: type of elements which can be used to fill in a specific slot in a unit. 4. system: group of elements that can fill in the same slot (paradigmatic relation between elements纵聚合关系) Hypotaxis: The dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses arranged with connectives. 形合Parataxis: The arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them. 意合英语五种基本句型列式如下： 基本句型一：SV（主谓） 基本句型二：SVC（主系表） 基本句型三：SVO（主谓宾） 基本句型四：SVoO（主谓间宾直宾） 基本句型五：SVOC（主谓宾宾补）text is not a random gathering of sentences but a semantic unit ranging from a sentence or even a word and phrase to a piece of work as long as they have texture including cohesion and coherence. Cohesion refers to the property of being a text created by the use of the linguistic features or resources language has for creating texture. 黏连性Coherence refers to the underlying semantic and logical connection between concepts expressed in the text. 连贯性Pragmatics 语用学It is concerned with the use of language, i.e., how the speaker conveys and the hearer understands the utterance in a certain situation. A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning. 言内行为An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speakers intention. It is the act performed in saying something. 言外行为A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something. It is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance. It is the act performed by saying something. 言后行为古典修辞学把劝说性演说的写作过程分成5个阶段：invention（觅材取材）arrangement（布局谋篇）style（文体风格）memory（背诵记忆）delivery（演说技能）这5个阶段也是演说的5个基本要素（常称作五艺）。这5个基本要素至今都是修辞学研究的基础和范畴。Simile refers to a direct comparison between two or more unlike things, normally introduced by like or as. 明喻Metaphor is an implied comparison between two or more unlike things achieved by identified one with the other. 暗喻借喻：汉语的借喻，相当于英语中的名词性隐喻（nominal metaphor），就是本体和喻词都不出现在句子中，直接把喻体当作本体来写。这种比喻形式比明喻和暗喻都更加强调了本体和喻体之间的相似性，能给人以更加鲜明的印象。metonymy：用一种名称代替另一种名称的方式，包括：以容器代替内容，以事物的显著特征代替该事物，以有密切关系的一物代替另一物，以工具代替动作或行为，以作者代替作品，以个体代替同类，以及用具体代替抽象等7种替代方式。Antonomasia：也是一种借代，专指用专有名词代替普通名词，或用普通名词代替专有名词。Synecdoche：也是一种借代，指用局部代整体，或整体代局部。夸张（Hyperbole），为了强调而故意夸大事实，给人以深刻印象，却不是为了骗人。委婉（Euphemism）：把话说得拐弯抹角、含蓄婉转Transferred Epithet（移就）这种修辞格的格式是把本应用来描述甲事物性质状态的定语移来形容乙事物。Pun又称为Paronomasia，其特点是用一个词，或一句话表达两层不同的意思。英语双关又可以分为谐音双关（Homophone）和词义双关（Homograph）两种。谐音双关是利用词义根本不同的谐音词来构成的。词义双关则是利用一词多义的特点来构词。Repetition：称为Reiteration，用来表示强烈的情感、紧迫的呼吁、强调某种事物的意义。它的格式可以分为紧接反复和间隔反复。anphora（首语反复）和epiphora（尾语反复）。所谓首语反复是把位于句首的词语加以反复。尾语反复是把在句尾的词语加以重复。Parallelism：排比是由三个或三个以上结构相同或相似、内容相关、证据一致的短语或句子排列在一起，用来加强语势强调内容，加重感情的修辞方式。汉语对偶是用字数相等、结构相同或类似的两个句子或句子成分，表达相反、相似或相关的意思。分为正对和反对。正对表达相似、相关或相连的意思；反对表达相反或相对的意思。汉语排比是用三个或以上结构相似，字数大体相等的句子或句子成分，来表达相似或相关的意思。它与对偶的区别在于：1）对偶必须字数相等，排比不拘；2）对偶必须两两相等，排比却是三个或以上的句子结构平列；3）对偶要求避免上下联用字相同，而排比却相反，经常有相同的字作为它们之间的联系者。Antithesis是用平列或对称的结构来表现两种相反的意思。（对偶）对偶是结构相同或基本相同、字数相等或基本相等、意义上密切联系、成对地排列的词、词组或句子。对偶从形式上看，音节整齐匀称，节奏感强；从内容上看凝练集中，概括力强。有鲜明的民族语言特点，便于 记诵。对偶就上联和下联在意义上的联系可分为: 正对是从两个角度、两个侧面说明同一事理，内容上相互补充。 串对是上下联内容从事物的发展过程、条件、假设等方面相联系，也叫流水对。 反对是上下联从矛盾对立两个方面来说其意义是相反想成的。层递是根据事物的逻辑关系，把一系列（三个或三个以上）事物按顺序说出，