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Unit Four英语的未来 在16世纪中叶，有四五百万人说英语，说英语的人数在欧洲的语言中名列第五。前四位依次是法语、德语、意大利语和西班牙语。俄语排在英语之后。两百年以后，意大利语排名落后，而俄语的排名靠前了，英语依然处于第五位。到了18世纪末，英语的地位开始上升。到19世纪中叶，英语已经跻身于第一位了。今天，英语的地位遥遥领先，说英语的人数可能达到说后两种语言，即俄语和德语人数的总和。 今天到底有多少人说英语?这个问题难以回答。除了把英语作为母语的人以外，还有一些人虽然出生在说其他语言的地方，但现在生活在说英语的社会，这些人在日常工作中说的是英语。更重要的是，英语目前在世界范围里作为外语广泛使用当然，在这些地方英语往往说得蹩脚，但是也可以让人理解。你几乎可以去世界的任何一个地方，不会任何别的语言，也能像在纽约一样过得顺利，这已成为司空见惯的事情。 当然，英语得到普及，部分原因是说英语的人分布极广。他们是现代最热衷旅行的人、最敢冒险的商人、最执着的殖民主义者。除此以外，他们总体上学语言的能力很差，所以，他们走到哪里，便把自己的语言带到哪里，并将之强加于人。 但是，问题远不止如此。英语在与其劲敌的竞争中取胜，往往不是因为数量原因，而完全是因为其优点。“在丰富性、所包含的智慧、以及严谨的精炼程度方面，”著名的雅各布格利姆在一个世纪之前说，“没有一种现存的语言能与英语媲美。”而著名的奥托耶斯佩森就在前几天对此加以补充说：英语简单，发音清晰，词与词之间的结构紧密，词的安排组织有逻辑性，而且英语中没有迂腐的废话。 当美国的教育工作者谈及英语的优点时，几乎总是一开始就赞美其词汇量之庞大。英语的词汇比任何其他语言的词汇至少多一倍。然而，吸引外国人的并不是词汇量大，相反，浩瀚的词汇很容易令外国人担忧。真正赢得外国人的是英语简练和纯朴的特征。尽管英语中有大量的源于拉丁文的多音节词，但我们却更多地使用短词，少用长词。而且，我们总是努力把长词缩短。以前使用的puniligrion现在缩短成了pun；昨天还是gasoline，今天已成为gas。欧洲没有任何一种其他语言有这么多由三个字母构成的单词，也没有如此多由四个单词构成的格言。“First come, first served”(先到先供应)便是典型的英语，因为它一目了然、朴实无华、短小精悍。英国心理学家奥格登博士认为，在一般的交流中，850个词就足够了。他把英语改编成简单的形式，将这种形式叫做基础英语。基础英语中的词汇不超过850个。在这850个词中，有至少600个词表示事物的名称，剩下的250个词包括说明事物的特征和动作行为的词、以及将句子连接在一起的语法词和小品词。这些词的数量是不是显得太少了?只有那些忘记了下面这一英语基本特征的人才会这么认为：英语中同一个词与不同的小修饰词结合，便可以产生无数多的意思。例如，我们可以想一想动词get在下列组合中的不同意思：to get going，to get by，to get onto，to get wise，to get off，to get ahead，to get over等。奥格登博士建议去掉英语中的大量动词其中一些是不规则动词，因而难以掌握，这些动词可以用上述短语动词来取代。例如，为什么要教外国人说他已从船上“上岸” (disembark)? 难道说他已“下船”(get off)不能表达同样的意思吗?为什么要教他说从流感中“复原”(recover)、“逃避”(escape)了警察，“获得”(obtain) 了工作? 难道说“流感好了”(get over the flu)、“甩开警察”(get away from the police)，或者简单地说“找到工作”(get a job)不足以表达同样的意思吗?但是随着英语的广泛传播，它是否能够保持现在的形式?也许不能。但为什么要保持现在的形式呢? 每次使英语规范化的所谓成功的努力其实很少成功。自从大革命以来，学校女教师一直努力使美式英语遵守语法规则，但是，美式英语依然在不断发展，最终必将征服英国英语。 这种结局很容易猜出，甚至是可以肯定的。在过去的SO年里，英语一直屈从于美语。 自世纪之交以来，英语屈从美语的速度不断加快。新词汇、新习语、甚至新发音都以无法抗拒的势力源源不断传入东方。从前我们常常借用很多英语词或短语，但现在很少这样做。但英语却吸纳我们创造的词，我们创造有多快，其吸纳的速度几乎就有多快。我认为，美国电影固然对这一变化起了很大作用，但毫无疑问，还有更深刻的原因。英语依然有点太严格、有点僵硬，且过于矫揉造作。而美语的发展却像伊丽莎白时代一样繁荣。所有那些在英国莎士比亚时代应用的构词方法，现在依然在美国应用着，新词源源不断地产生。如果莎翁健在，这些新词一定会使他欣喜若狂，就像他所生活的时代产生的新词曾使他欣喜若狂一样。 自安妮时代以来，英国人就以一种带有爱国者的警惕和义愤的复杂心情，来拒绝美语的进入，尽管效果在日渐下降。1800年以后开始蜂涌来到美国的英国游客也甘情愿支持这一有益的工作。他们当中很少有人不对碰到的美国新词和陌生的美国发音感到惊恐。当海军上校巴赛尔霍尔1827年和1828年来到这里时，甚至打电话向70多岁的诺亚韦伯斯特提出抗议。“毫无疑问，”他说，“这种发明创造应该受到蔑视。”“我不这么认为，”韦伯斯特坚决地回答，“如果一个词在美国普遍流行开来，为什么不应该收人语言中呢?” 霍尔只好以英国人典型的自满态度回答说：“因为现有的词汇已经足够了。” 这种敌对情绪一直持续到今天。每隔一段时间，伦敦的日报和周报便对美语侵入提出大声抗议。就连相对谨慎而又绝对实用的美式简单拼写(如以or结尾的词)有时也遭到极其强烈的指责但是，英国人现在来维护其本族语的纯洁性实在为时太晚了，因为已经有太多的美式用语进入英语，英语至少在某种程度上已成为一种美式方言。在英国，数以百计的美语应用于日常生活中，许多英国人对这些用语极其熟悉，因此在使用时，如果有人质问他为什么用美语，他往往会辩解道，这些用语其实是英国英语。 有些英国人认为，现在已是向美语妥协的时候了，甚至应该欢迎美语了。美语支持者的鼻祖好像是已故的威廉阿切尔。他早在1899年就说过，美国用语大大丰富了英语语言，不仅为英语增加了新词，而且增加了一些恰如其分、通俗易懂、带有口语特色的比喻用法。已故的罗伯特布里奇博士，从1913年到1930年去世为止，享有英国桂冠诗人的称号，他也与阿切尔持同样观点。 我看了看奥格登博士的基础英语里列出的50个“国际性”名词表，发现至少9个是美语，而不是英语。我再看了看市川教授列出的已纳入日语的英语单词表，只见每一页都有美语。显而易见，如果有朝一日英语征服世界真的成为现实，征服世界的必将是美式英语。Unit Seven熵事情发生在大约两个月以前。有一天我突然意识到在我日常生活中熵逐渐占了上风。就在这同一天，我的车又坏了，电冰箱不制冷了；而且我还得知我的右后臼齿牙根管需要镶补。每逢下雨，卧室的窗户仍旧漏水；每当我急需照看孩子的保姆时，保姆仍旧没有露面。我的头发开始花白了，我的打字机也磨损坏了。房子需要刷油漆，我也需要一副老花眼镜了。儿子的运动鞋磨破了几个窟窿，而我越来越感到自己没出息了。如果新换的衣服下星期五又穿脏了，那么我星期六花上整整半天的功夫泡在洗衣房还有什么意义呢?唉，混乱是宇宙万物的自然规律。甚至还有一个叫做“熵”的测量混乱度的精确单位。熵不同于任何其他物理眭质(如运动、引力、能)，它不会双向运转，且只增不减，一旦形成，就决不会毁掉。通往混乱的路是一条单行道。由于熵有令人气馁的不可逆性，因此它被称为时间之箭。我们都本能地理解这一点。孩子们的房间，如果不去收拾，那么只会越来越乱，而不会越来越整齐。木头会腐烂，金属会生锈，人会长皱纹，花要凋谢。甚至山头也会消蚀，原子核也会衰变。在城市里破旧的地铁中、在坑凹不平的人行道上、在被拆毁的楼房中、在我们El常生活越来越多的混乱中，我们都能看到熵在起作用。我们不用问也知道什么是衰老。如果我们突然看到油漆又跃回旧楼房的墙面，我们准会感到有问题。如果我们看到一个鸡蛋自己拼凑在一起又跳回蛋壳，我们准会开怀大笑，就像看一组倒放的电影镜头那样。然而，熵并不是开玩笑的事，因为每增加一分熵，就意味着能量的浪费和机会的丧失。从山上流下的水可使其在流动过程中做功。但是，一旦所有的水都处在同一个水平高度，就不能再做功了。这就是熵。我的电冰箱启动时，它使所有冷空气有序地聚在厨房的一角，而使热空气呆在另一角。一旦冰箱出了故障，冷热空气就混合成了不冷不热的一团，使得冰箱里的黄油溶化、牛奶变质，冷冻的蔬菜腐烂。当然，能量并没有真正丧失，但是它已失去效用而消散为乱七八糟一锅粥，对我们没有任何用处。熵是混乱无序，是目的的丧失。人们常常因在自己的生活中似乎看到熵而感到焦虑不安。人们就像温热的厨房里的大量分子一样被推来攘去，他们感到自己失去了方向感，感到无时无处不在浪费青春和机遇。婚姻中很容易出现熵，当伴侣们过于忙于自己的事而忽视了弥补小小裂痕时，几乎可以肯定他们的婚姻要破裂。在我们国家目前的状况中，在国与国之间的关系中都存在着大量的熵各种混乱随时会雪崩般把我们全部吞噬，而我们却丧失了阻止它们发生的种种机会。然而，熵并非在哪里都不可避免。晶体、雪花和星系是在杂乱无序的海洋中令人难以置信的美丽而井然有序的孤岛。如果不是因为有了熵的例外，天空就会是一片黑暗，我们就能看到星星在何处度过它们的白昼。正是因为空气分子在大气中井然有序地聚集组合，天空才会是蓝色的。对于熵来说，最深邃莫测的例外莫过于生命的创造了。一粒种子吸取了一些土壤的养料，一些碳、一些阳光和水分，就长成了一株玫瑰。母腹中的受精卵吸收一些氧气、比萨饼和牛奶就发育成了婴儿。引人深思的是需要大量的能量才能形成一个婴儿。种子长成大树也需要能量。通向混乱之路犹如走下坡道那样轻松，而通向创造之路却要付出劳动。虽然我们可能与熵抗争，但却要付出代价。这就是为什么我们要振作起来似乎非常困难，而放任自流却那么轻而易举。而更糟糕的是，我们在宇宙的一个角落里建立秩序的同时，总是在另一个地方造成了更多的混乱。我们从石油和煤中创造了有序的能量，付出的代价是烟雾的熵。在暂停了几个月之后，我最近又开始吹长笛了。刺耳的笛声回荡在整个房间，我的儿子不由得捂着耳朵问道：“妈，您的长笛怎么啦?”我的长笛自然没出任何问题，问题是我的吹奏技巧却大不如以前，或者说熵化了，就那么回事。制止这一过程的惟一方法是天天练习。果然，我吹出的音调比以前好多了，尽管我为此付出的代价只是坚持练习。我们的能力如同其他任何事情一样，如不花费精力加以运用，能力就会退化。这就是熵使人沮丧的原因。看起来即使要和熵打个平手也是一场艰难的战斗。我们这样说是有充分理由的。熵的形成有很大的偶然性。以任何一个在我的厨房里转来转去的冰冷的空气分子为例。这个分子在任何一点上朝冰箱方向运动的概率都正好是50；它朝背离冰箱方向运动的概率也是50。但是如果数十亿个冷热空气分子混合在一起，那么所有冷空气分子朝冰箱方向运动，同时所有热空气分子背离冰箱运动的概率实际上是零。熵总是占上风，这并不是因为有序是不可能的，而是因为通往熵的道路比通往有多得多。把一件事情办糟的方法要比把它办好的方法多；把一件事搞得乱七八糟的办法比把它搞得井井有条的办法更多。我们生活中的障碍和意外事故几乎总使我们不断碰撞，偏离既定的路线，使我们步人歧途。通往无序之路是阻力最小的路，是一条轻松但并非必然的路。和许多人一样，我因今天所见到的自己周围的熵而感到苦恼。我担心难以预测的国际局势；担心这个世界缺乏共同的目标；对由此可能会导致核战争这一终极熵而提心吊胆。我为自己不能把孩子送去上我所在这个城市的公立学校而感到苦恼；我为人们失业以及通货膨胀失控而苦恼；我为性别和种族之间的紧张关系似乎再度加剧而感到苦恼，为人与人之间处处显示出的分崩离析的关系而感到苦恼。社会制度如同原子和恒星一样，如果不添加能量保持其有序状况也会衰变。友谊、家庭和经济关系亦是如此，除非我们不断努力对其加以保持和维护，否则也都会瓦解。而据我看来，愿意为此而不断努力的人实在是太少了。当然，事物越复杂，维持有序就越困难。如果在厨房里只有十几个的空气分子，那么我等上一年左右，或许在某个时刻6个最冷的分子会聚集在冰箱里。但是，这一等式中的变量越多、参加这一游戏的角色越多，那么他们的路径井然有序地相互吻合的可能性就越小。组成拼图的木块越多，打乱次序之后，就越难将图重新拼好。一位物理学家说过：“不可逆性是我们为复杂所付出的代价。”练习答案Unit 1 Text A Tax Competition Spurs Globalization. Key to the exercises1. Reading comprehension(1) The economic forces behind globalization include rising trade and investment flows, greater labor mobility, and rapid transfers of technology. Those trends have bee stimulated by the deregulation of financial markets, reductions in trade barriers, and lower communication costs.(2) Most economists support globalization because it raises the incomes of people worldwide. Another lesser0noticed benefit is that it makes it harder for governments to sustain excessively high tax rates. When economic integration increases, individuals and businesses gain the freedom to take advantage of low tax rates abroad.(3) It shows that some smart nations like Ireland are treating international tax competition as an opportunity, not a threat.(4) First, high0tax countries have urged international organizations to reduce tax competition. Second, many nations are adding layers of complex rules on businesses to discourage them from investing abroad, rather than reducing tax burdens so that businesses want to invest at home.(5) Because there are more opportunities and lower taxes in cities such as London.(6) The author cites the case of Ireland to show that with the reduction of taxes, a large number of immigrants are attracted, and people at home are unwilling to migrate out. The lower one countrys tax is, the more skilled people are attracted.(7) Because market competition encourages production efficiency. Tax competition provides an incentive to improve government efficiency. For example, the Federal government is no longer a monopolyAmericans now are able to invest abroad, retire in a low0tax Caribbean country, or move their business to low0tax Ireland. Accordingly, the Federal government needs to reform the tax code and provide services more efficiently to encourage Americans and their money to stay at home.(8) Tax competition among countries should be a win0win policy, as it restrains governments and helps spur global economic growth.2. Vocabulary(1) d (2) g (3) k (4) I (5) b (6) m (7) c (8) f (9) n (10) a3. Paraphrase(1) Until now, basic economic forces have been greater in importance than political efforts to make this trend slow. (2) Efforts to oppose the effects of economic integration have extended from anti0globalization protests to Congressional efforts to prevent American companies from forming new corporations in foreign countries.(3) The U.S. is able to be divided into this group because it has one of the highest corporate tax rates.(4) International investors have been affected easily by changes and differences between national tax rates when their investment choices have increased.(5) For many years, young Irish people went to America and other foreign countries, and tried to find a way to live a better life. But after Ireland reduced individual tax and then quickly cut corporate tax, the pattern of out0migration was changed around completely.(6) If the U.S. makes progress in tax reform, other nations would probably reform their taxes in the same way, as they did when the U.S. reduced rates in the 1980s.4. Cloze(1) and(2) understand(3) about(4) sides(5) what(6) bad(7) nor(8) properly(9) destroy(10) says(11) which(12) stronger(13) behind(14) up(15) While(16) unique(17) dark(18) benefits(19) from(20) rule5. TranslationA. Translate the following paragraph into Chinese.由于殖民地与许多海外地区的大量贸易,所有欧洲重要商业国以及它们在西半球领地的金银铸币在北美东海岸都可以自由交换.由于法律不允许英国货币从英国流向殖民地,相比之下,西班牙的货币更加重要.这些货币在墨西哥城及利马铸造,再进入西班牙殖民地.西班牙币在殖民地被普遍使用,以至于这种硬币最后成为美国货币单位.B. Translate the following sentences into English.(1) With the growing of this towns economy, people intend to tailor a first0class nursing home for the needs of the local elderly. (2) Because of the recessionary effect on the economy, many small businesses have gone bankrupt or have been swallowed up by giant corporations.(3) The facts relative to the case have been surveyed clearly, and the court has still to pass judgment on it.(4) He didnt marry her, because he felt that although pity was closely akin to love, they were still different. He was eager to marry for love, not pity.(5) Your advice was a great help to me, so a small expression of my gratitude is in place.Text B Measuring GlobalizationKey to the exercises1. F2. F3. T4. F5. T6. T7. F8. F9. F10. TUnit 2 Text A Climate Talks Collapse: Rejoice, Rejoice!. Key to the exercises1. Reading comprehension(1) This sentence reveals that the author didnt feel disappointed about the collapse of the conference. Instead, he thought it was a good thing in the long run. A similar attitude is also embedded in sentences like climate talks collapse: rejoice, rejoice!, And then, thank God, it all collapsed. and we are better off with a clean slate than a weak precedent.(2) First, the targets decided on the conference are too measly, more than ten times less than we need to stabilize the problem. Even if the conference had been a success, the crisis would still not be able to be diverted. Second, once the agreement had been made, politicians would stop wasting their time on climate problems for some time, giving the public a false impression that something was being done. Whats more, some developed countries would frequently use flexible mechanisms to delude. So the author thought the collapse was for the best.(3) According to the text, the real solution to the climate crisis is to adapt economics. For example, unnecessary dependence on the global economy should be shifted towards dependence on the local economy, and infrastructure should be established to free us from dependence on fossil fuels, and wind power should be better exploited to avoid more pollution.(4) The author thought this claim was ridiculous. He thought if we did not take action, the cost would be much more. So, according to him, it was worthwhile for us to take action to combat climate crisis compared with the loss caused by natural disasters.(5) The author considered this as a waste, because the chance for the occurrence of an attack from a nuclear state is slim. To waste money on something unlikely to happen is automatically unwise. He thought it would be better to spend the same sum on the prevention of the deterioration of climate, which has a greater possibility to happen.2. Vocabulary(1) splashed(2) comply(3) offset(4) concessions(5) pledged(6) prohibitive(7) Astoundingly(8) undermined(9) deluded(10) tumbled3. Paraphrase(1) After many years of warning from people who are concerned about the protection of environment, groups of influential people in science and politics in most countries had finally began to realize and understand.(2) The analysis of the IPCC scientists was repeated by a number of other scientific groups, and even by the British and American government.(3) Actually, we might be wiser to keep a clean record than a weak climate agreement made earlier. In another words, we might be wiser not to have any if we can only achieve a climate agreement which is not so binding.(4) Without changing our economics, we will just be saving the separate leaves on a dying tree. That is to say, without changing our economics, the action taken by us will be just superficial, not enough to divert the worsening situation.(5) Our government, similar to its predecessors, sticks to the belief that increased global trade is naturally beneficial.(6) This has not only weakened the local economies gradually, but has also led to the situation where each mouthful of food involves the consumption of gallons of fuel.(7) Surprisingly, some people still declare that climate change is something imaginary and impossible-and that, even if it is not imaginary, the costs of changing the situation will prevent us from taking action.(8) There is no negative side in the action to prevent climate change. 4. Cloze(1) committing(2) combat(3) issued(4) reduce(5) withdrawal(6) ratified(7) accounted(8) emissions(9) participation(10) implemented(11) reached(12) proceed(13) secure(14) concessions(15) original(16) option(17) pressure(18) unanimous(19) revised(20) greenhouse5. TranslationA. Translate the following paragraph into Chinese.但是,一切都考虑进去了之后,那个长期的真正能够解决环境危机的方法却被所有的领导人忽视了.倘若不去调整我们的经济,我们将只能是绿化垂死的树上的个别叶子.我们的政府,和它的前任们一样,坚持认为持续增长的全球贸易理所当然是一件好事情.因此,政府给予了无数直接或间接的资助.这些资助只能使那些生产远距离出口商品的大公司获益:比方说,欧盟的要求使得这个国家不得不进口一些诸如牛奶之类的基本商品.这不仅殃及到了当地的经济,而且会造成一种局面:每一口普普通通的食物在抵达我们嘴边之前都要消耗掉数加仑的燃料.我们正在迅速地朝着美国现在所面临的难以维继的局面发展.在美国,每一盘普普通通的食物都穿越了长达1000多英里的旅程,这并不是聪明的经济,也不是一种很好的做法.B. Translate the following sentences into English.(1) As to the climate crisis, we are better off with a clean slate than a weak proposal. Because once the proposal is made, politicians will close the climate chapter for some time.(2) Shes cottoned on that her constant stomachache was caused by eating the smoked meat on offer last week at the local market.(3) That superstar descended on a small costal town, which was splashed across the front page of the local newspaper.(4) His last0ditch effort to win a place in the business world collapsed, which seemed frustrating. But it was also for the best. From the failure, he could learn a lot.(5) Parents lavish their love and care on their children. However, when they become old, some of them are condemned to live alone.(6) The present political leaders of our country, in line with his predecessors, were wedded to the belief that we should not retreat in the action against corruption.(7) The school dropouts in poverty0stricken areas came back to school by courtesy of the subsidies from government and donations from the kind people.(8) Under the effective organization of the local government, the damage caused by the flood has been watered down to the minimum.(9) Superpowers forge ahead in economic development, leaving other countries far behind. But it doesnt necessarily follow that they have the final say in everything.(10) At the end of the day the new executive is no better than his predecessor.Text B Hot StuffKey to the exercisesF2. F3. T4. F5. T6. T3Unit 3 Text A How Progress Makes Us Sick. Key to the exercises1. Reading comprehension (1) In Belgium and the Netherlands, the avian flu was wiping out entire chicken farms. And even though Dutch farmers recently slaughtered 18 million birds in hopes of stopping the outbreak, the bird flu has spread to several provinces and jumped from poultry to pigs and even people, causing 83 human cases. The complaints of most infected people were eye inflammation and some developed respiratory illness.(2) They didnt think so because smallpox was largely defeated and AIDS had never been heard nor dreamed of; and at that time medical science was advancing very fast.(3) The ocean disturbance caused an unusually warm winter in the Southeast of America, which gave rise to an explosion of the mouse population that gave a free ride to the hantavirus to be bad enough to infect human beings.(4) In the 1980s, when the farmers in Venezuela cleared millions of acres of forest to create cropland, the arrival of more and more rodents introduced a deadly new virus-Guanarito virus - into the region. It caused fever, shock and hemorrhaging, infecting more than 100 people and leaving a third of them dead. The lesson we should learn is that almost any activity that disrupts a natural environment can enhance the mobility of disease-causing microbes.(5) A similar experience happened to Malaysian farmers in 1999 after they pushed back the forest to expand their operations. As barns replaced forestland, displaced fruit bats started living in the rafters, contaminating the pigs drinking water with the Nipah virus. The pigs developed an explosive cough that became known as the one0mile cough because it could be heard from so far away. The virus soon spread from the pigs to their keepers, causing extreme brain inflammation and killing 40 percent of the affected people. It resulted in eight farms closed and a million pigs slaughtered.(6) No, we cannot. Rain forests are not dangerous. The point is that human beings blindly rearrange ecosystems that can be hazardous to our health. Another such example is Lyme disease.(7) The human AIDS viruses are descended from simian pathogens known as SIVs. HIV01 is basically a chimpanzee virus, while HIV02 comes from the sooty mangabey (a monkey). The best suggestion to the current wide spread of AIDS is that African hunters contracted the chimp virus while butchering animals, and t