ConversioninTranslation.doc

Conversion in TranslationChapter I IntroductionChinese and English are two highly-developed languages with their distinctive features and forms. They have similarities and dissimilarities on lexical, grammar, semantic and textual levels. So, in translation practice, if the two languages share the same lexical and grammar structure, source language can be directly translated into target language. This kind of translation called word-for-word translation. For example, The little girl likes flowers. 这个小姑娘喜欢花。 He is my teacher. 他是我的老师。However, due to unique history, custom and culture between east and west, this word-for-word translation failed in practice on most occasions. Therefore, some translation strategies are employed in tackling this problem. And conversion is one of the effective techniques in translation. In this article, the author will firstly have a literature review on conversion in translation. Then, some reasons for conversion in translation will be explored in chapter II. Thirdly, a thorough research will be done in chapter III on the methods of conversion in translation from an bilingual differential perspective. At last, an conclusion will be drawn on what the author mainly argued in this essay.Chapter II Literature ReviewThis chapter is to review some basic knowledge of conversion in translation, such as definition of conversion and the relations between conversion and translation. All of these are crucial to the understanding of the mechanism and detailed methods of conversion in translation in this research.2.1 Definition of conversion in translationThe etymological study of the term “conversion” indicates that the word deprives from Middle English (conversioun, interpreted as “religious conversion”), and can be further traced back to old French (conversion) and Latin (conversion, conversion, meaning “a turning around”). And now, this term has been widely employed in a variety of subjects, such as Law and Logic, Linguistics, Translation, etc. here are some representative views on conversion, which are put forward by scholars domestic and abroad:1) Bussmann (2000: 104) defined conversion in a traditional way as follows: “Conversion is referred to as the process of word formation brought about by a change in lexical category of a base (to drive a drive) and also of compound stems (to sandpaper), but also exceptionally those with a prefix or a suffix.”2) Catford (1965: 73) defined shifts (or conversion) as “departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL”. He thought that translation shifts (conversion in translation) consist of level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts means conversion between grammar level and lexical level; while category shifts means departures from formal correspondence in translation, consisting of structure shifts, class shifts, unit shifts and intra-system shifts.3) Liu Miqing (1993) held that conversion is a flexible means widely used in translation. Conversion, on most occasions, is a necessary copying strategy to achieve flexible equivalence. But it also inevitably fails in equivalence in form. All of these views have given us a good description of conversion in translation from different aspects. Generally speaking, conversion can be understood in a rather narrow sense as a mean of word-formation or in a broad sense as a pragmatic and rhetoric phenomenon and even a cognitive phenomenon. 2.2 Relations between conversion and translation In order to figure out the relations between conversion and translation, some general knowledge about translation, such as definition of translation and methods of translation are demanded. Since this article mainly deal with the subject of conversion, a clear understanding of the Relations between conversion and translation is necessary and helpful.2.2.1 Definition of translationThe Oxford English Dictionary defined translation as: “to turn from one language into another”. Websters Third New International Dictionary of the English Language put it in this way: “to turn into ones own language into another language”. The above two definition expressed the same meaning with different words. That is translation is a language transformation activity. Eugene A. Nida, an American translation theorist, held that: “Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. (Nida and Charles R. Taber, 1982:12) Peter Newmark also defined translation as: “the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL). Either Nidas reproducing or Newmarks replacement is a process of language conversion. Generally speaking, translation implies rendering from one language into another of something written or spoken. With this brief review of what is translation, it is much easier to discuss the Relations between conversion and translation.2.2.2 Relations between conversion and translation It has been pointed out in previous study that translation itself is a process of conversion from one language into another language. But here, the “conversion” under discussion is completely different from the meaning of translation. Instead, as a copying strategy, it is a kind of translating technique or method. Speaking of translating method, people will naturally think about two methods: metaphase and paraphrase. So, what is metaphase (literal translation)? And what is paraphrase (free translation)? In Zhu Guangqians opinion, the so-called literal translation is to translate something literally, that is, the translation version will be definitely determined word for word, phrase for phrase, and the sequence of words and phrase will not be changed. The examples given in introduction stand for this kind of translation. For free translation, Song Tianxi once said that free translation means the rendering of deep meaning and contents rather than language and form. Since translation is not only to translate forms but also to convert meaning, conversion in translation becomes possible as one technique of free translation. Apart from conversion, there are other techniques of free translation, such as omission, amplification, repetition, restructuring, negation, division, etc. However, conversion is one of the most widely used method.To sum up, conversion in translation belongs to translating methods, or exactly belongs to free translation. Because conversion helps to smooth translation work, makes translation acceptable to readers of target language, and essentially helps to improve translations, it becomes a strategy that translators frequently adopted and always favored.Since conversion in translation enjoys great popularity among translators home and abroad, is it a necessary step or method in translation? In chapter III, some reasons for conversion in translation are to be discussed as to explain why conversion is necessary in translation.Chapter III Reasons for conversion in translation As a technique in translation, conversion is so useful that almost every teaching book will mention it and most translators like to adopt it into their translation. Without using it, translation process probably can not continue, let alone a faithful and smooth translation. So, in this chapter, three reasons for conversion in translation will be explained, namely, the demand of criteria in translation, the consideration of readers response and most importantly the difference between English and Chinese. This three reasons will be discussed one by one in the following essay.3.1 The demand of criteria in translation Criteria in translation are controversial topic in translation history. Various criteria theories have been brought out by translation theorists home and abroad. The author of this essay held that conversion in translation is to pursue a faithful and smooth translation, which is also the criteria most scholars agreed with.3.1.1 Various criteria theories1) Tytlers three principles Alexander F. Tytler, a famous British translator, proposed his three principles: That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. That the translation should have all the ease of original composition. (Lefevere, 1992: 128)2) Nidas equivalence of responseEugene A. Nida, a word-widely known American translator, laid down the following fundamentals in his book Toward a Science of Translation: True to the original Vivid Smooth and natural Equivalence of response. Of these the last one is the key point. The so-called equivalence of response means that a good translation can call forth the response of its readers equivalent to that of the readers of the original work.3) Yan Fus “three-character guide” Yan Fu, a famous Chinese translator, put forth the famous Criteria of translationfaithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, when he finished translating Evolution and Ethics. His theory has been generally regarded as a yardstick to measure the professional level of translation and a goal for translators to strive after.4) Fu Leis “spiritual conformity”This theory emphasized the reproduction of the spirit or the flavor of the original. In his point of view, it is called “spiritual conformity” if thetranslation can be conformed with the form and spirit of flavor of the original.Despite the variety of opinion put forth by home and abroad translators, the criteria of faithfulness, smoothness and expressiveness are almost unanimously accepted and followed.3.1.2 Pursuit of faithfulness, smoothness and expressiveness As mentioned in above research, a good translation is a faithful, smooth and expressive translation. And translators adopted conversion in translation for the consideration of pursuing a good translation. In another word, translators use the technique of conversion because of their pursuit of faithful, smooth and expressive translation. Faithfulness to the original requires translators to be faithful not only to the original contents, meaning and views, but also to the original form and style. Though conversion will evitable change the original forms, its ultimate purpose is to pursue a better faithfulness to the original contents. After all, contents are the essence of language, instead of forms in most texts. Besides, smoothness and expressiveness is also the necessary requirement in translation. This principle requires a translation to be not only easy and readable rendering, but also idiomatic expression in the target language, free from stiff formula and mechanical copying from dictionaries. To fit for these criteria, conversion is the most useful method to be used. Since conversion implies the meaning of changing one original expression in SL into another conventional expression in TL, it is aimed to achieve a smooth and expressive translation in TL. In brief, pursuit of faithful, smooth and expressive translation is one of the main reasons for conversion in translation. But it is only one of the reasons; consideration of readers response is another one.3.2 Consideration of readers response “Reader-response theory”, one of contemporary western literary criticisms, arose in the late 1960s in reaction to the prevalent New Criticism, which dominated western literary criticism for about half-century. It is Nida who introduced and developed it into translation area, when he explored his theory of Dynamic/Functional Equivalence in Toward a Science of Translation. From Nidas point of view, readers response is an essential criterion in judging a good translation. In order to make a similar response between source readers and target readers, conversion is employed in bridging two distinctive languages and easing readers understanding. Therefore, readers response is another reasons for conversion in translation. Apart from two reasons mentioned above, differences between English and Chinese are the major reasons for conversion in translation.3.3 Language and culture differences between the east and west Culture is an extremely complex concept and enormous subject. And the influence of cultural differences on is also complex and enormous. Language, which possesses all the features of culture, is the reflection of culture. And any differences in culture will definitely reflect in language.Conversion is one of the strategies to bridge language and cultural gaps.3.3.1 Culture differencesSince translation is not only transfer of words and sentences but also transfer of messages and implied culture information, a good translation should bridge cultural gaps and convey the source culture message in target language. Culture differences between the east and west can be generally described as: image and function integrity and individuality covertness and overtness (Shi Haifeng: Culture Differences and Translation)3.3.2 Language differencesDifferences in language arise from differences in mental culture. English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. English is part of Indo-European language family, while Chinese falls to Chinese-Tibetan language family. The former is phonograph, while the later is ideography. In Contrastive Study of English and Chinese, Lian Shuneng summarized the differences from the following aspects: Synthetic VS. Analytic Compact VS. Diffusive Hypotactic VS. Paratactic Complex VS. Simple Impersonal VS. Personal Passive VS. Active Static VS. Dynamic Abstract VS. Concrete Indirect VS. Direct Substitutive VS. Reiterative In chapter IV, some of them will be studied in detail when we discuss the methods of conversion in translation. Because of these differences between English and Chinese, translators have to use some strategies to make his translation faithful and smooth. And conversion is one of the effective strategies to be widely used in translation.In brief, this chapter mainly discussed three reasons for conversion in translation. At the same time, the necessity and importance of conversion in translation are revealed. Since conversion is necessary and so important, how to use this strategy in translation? This question will be answered in next chapter.Chapter IV Study on methods of conversion in translationan bilingual differential approachIn previous study, what conversion is and why conversion is used in translation have been argued carefully. These previous understanding is quiet useful in studying methods of conversion in translation, in another way, how to apply conversion in translation. In this chapter, the author will mainly introduce some methods of conversion after a brief introduction of language differences lied behind the methods.4.1 Static vs. dynamic: conversion of parts of speechEnglish is static, with agent nouns being repeatedly used to replace verbs, while Chinese is dynamic, with more verbs being used in a single sentence. Due to this differences, translators may convert parts of speech in translation, especially the conversion between nouns and verbs.4.1.1 Static vs. dynamicR. Quirk and others in their book A Grammar of Contemporary English explained static and dynamic in this way: “ Broadly speaking, nouns can be characterized naturally as “static” in that they refer to entities that are regarded as stable, At the opposite pole, verbs can be equally characterized as “dynamic”: they are fitted to indicate action, activity and temporary and changing conditions. Static features in English are mainly found in the following aspects: 1) phenomenon of nominalization 2) verb-derived agentive nouns, such as suffix: er or or. 3) Preposition priority arisen from noun priority 4) weakening of verbs, for example, the using of to be, it, there be, have, make, do, etc.On the contrary, Chinese is dynamic. This can be observed from the phenomenon of joint-using verbs, verb phrases and repetition of verbs in Chinese sentences.4.1.2 Conversion of parts of speech There are two major kinds of parts of speech: open classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs) and closed classes (pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions and auxiliaries). Owing to the syntactical differences between English and Chinese, it is usually impossible for one translator to keep to the original word class in translation. As a matter of fact, a word belonging to a certain word class in English language sometimes has to be converted into a different word class, so as to bring forth a readable and coherent sentence.4.1.2.1 Conversion of English nouns into Chinese verbsIn translation, it is necessary to convert some English nouns into Chinese verbs because they usually indicate sorts of action, are derivatives of English verbs, or can be used both as nouns and verbs. Pay attention to the following sentences:Eg1: The 1967 UN document calls for the settlement of the Middle East conflict on the basis of Israeli withdraw from occupied territories and Arab acknowledgement of Israelis right to exist. 一九六七年联合国文件要求在以色列撤出所占土地以及阿拉伯承认以色列的生存权的基础上来解决中东冲突。（张培基等，2001：45）Eg2: I am afraid I cant teach you swimming. I think my little brother is a better teacher than I. 我未必会教你游泳。我想我弟弟比我教得好。Eg3: They took a final look at the tower, still intact in the darkness. 他们最后看了那座塔一眼它依然安然无恙地耸立在黑暗中。Comments: In the above three sentences, Chinese verbs, not nouns are used to translate English nouns. That is, we may convert these English nouns into Chinese verbs. At the same time, we notice that the nouns remain the following ways