新编简明英语语言学教程(重点笔记赶考秘籍).docVIP

1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It is a scientific study because it (a) is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data. It (b) discovers the nature and rules of the underlying language system. It (c) collects language facts that display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them. The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics. phonetics(语音学): the study of sounds phonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning morphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form words syntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences semantics(语义学): the study of meaning pragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language use interdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学) Important distinctions in linguistics prescriptive(规定性 old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性 modern linguistics) synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性): most linguistic studies are of synchronic descriptions, which is prior in modern linguistics speech and writing: speech is prior to writing in modern linguistics langue(语言系统abstract linguistic system) and parole(话语/言语realization of langue in actual use): Swiss linguist F. de Saussure-forefather of modern linguistics competence(语言能力ideal users knowledge of rules of his language) and performance(语言运用actual realization of this knowledge): American linguist N. Chomsky traditional grammar and modern linguistics: Saussures book “Course in General Linguistics” marked the beginning of modern linguistics1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. LAD: Language Acquisition Device -Chomsky Arbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced. Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge. lower level(sounds)-higher level(words) Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to be taught and learned.2.1 Speech and writing are the two media for communication, of which speech is more basic/primary. The sounds which are produced by humans through their speech organs and meaningful in communication constitute the phonic medium of language. The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, which concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages. articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phonetics Speech organs: pharyngeal; cavity-throat; oral cavity-mouth; nasal cavity-nose IPA: 国际音标 diacritics: 变音符 broad transcription: 宽式标音(used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)narrow transcription: 严式标音(used by phoneticians in their study) vowels(the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed) stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音) close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness) unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips) long/tense vowels-short/lax vowels monophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus. phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaning concerned with sound system of a particular language phonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech sounds A phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment.(speech sounds are all phones) a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning A phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit.(an abstract unit of distinctive value) not particular sound, but is realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones(音位变体) of that phoneme. Rules in phonology: Sequential rules(序列规则)-rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. Assimilation rule(同化规则)-assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. for ease of articulation(清晰发音) e.g. green, scream Deletion rule(省略规则)-e.g. designation Suprasegmental features(超切分特征): the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. stress(重音)-word stress and sentence stress The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. E.g. import (n.) import (v.) / blackbird vs. black bird tone(语调)-pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声 Intonation(音调)-English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall tone E.g. Thats not the book he wants.3.1 Morphology: study of the internal structure of words, and rules by which words are formed3.2 open class words(开放类): new words can be addednouns, verbs, adjective and adverbs closed class words(封闭类): “grammatical” or “functional” words3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language. Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning.Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself粘着词素must be attached to another one-affix)3.4 V-teach N Af-er3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素) Free morphemes Bound morphemes Root Root Affix dog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffix grammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional -mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -s, -er3.6 Morphological rules determine how morphemes combine to form words. E.g. un-accept-able3.8 Another way to form words is compounding. E.g. bittersweet Word Formations: compounding, blending, backformation, shortening4.1 Syntax studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2 Category is a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Syntactic categoriesword-level categories: major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built)-Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P) minor lexical categories-Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con) Three criteria(条件) determining a words category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布) A words category can be determined only by all three criteria. Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP) phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain: head, specifier, complement4.3 Phrase structure rule-special type of grammatical mechanism regulating the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase NP(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complement VP(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complement AP(Deg) A (PP) PP(Deg) P (NP) XP rule: XP(specifier) X (complement) Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”) XX *Con X Either an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con.4.4 Phrase elements: specifiers, complements, modifiersspecifiers determiner qualifier degree word heads N V A / P complementizers (Cs)words introducing the sentence complement complement clausesentence introduced by the complementizer complement phrase(CP) matrix clauseconstruction in which the CP embeded嵌入 As, Ns, Ps can all take CP. Adjectives: (heads) afraid, certain, aware Nouns: (heads) fact, claim, belief Prepositions: (heads)over, about modifiers: all lexical categories can have modifiers. AP(+Ns): precedes the head e.g. a very careful girl PP(+Vs): follows the head e.g. open with care AdvP(+Vs): precedes or follows the head e.g. read carefully/carefully read The Expanded XP rule: XP(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)4.5 The S rule: SNP VP - Inflp (=S)NP Infl VP -Infl can be taken by an abstract category encoded in a verb indicating tense or an auxiliary(助动词)4.6 Transformation a special rule that can move an element from one position to anotherauxiliary movement(助动词移位) inversion: move Infl to the left of the subject NP. within larger CPs (embedded or not): inversion: move Infl to C. P53 Figure 4-8do insertion(插入): insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position, than move Infl to C.deep and surface structure: e.g. Will the train arrive?Deep: S Surface: Will the train _ arrive? NP VP Det N Infl V the train will arriveThe XP ruleD structuretransformationsS structurewh movement: move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence/the specifier position under CP P57 Figure 4-16 P58 Figure 4-18move and constraints on transformations move : general rule for all the movement rules : any element that can be moved limits: inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position no element may be removed from a coordinate structure5.1 Semantics is the study of meaning (from a linguistic point of view.)5.2 The naming theory: The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. The limitations of this theory are obvious. Theres verbs, adjectives, etc. and also abstract nouns. The conceptualist view: Words and things are related through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Contextualism: The meaning of a word is its use in the language. Behaviorism: The meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning, which are related but different aspects of meaning. Sense: e.g. “dog”-a domesticated mammal. refer to any animal that meets the features described Reference: “dog”-A said to B:” The dogs barking.” refer to a certain dog known to both A&B Major sense relations:synonymy-words that are close in meaning dialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall in AE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father), syn. that differ in emotive or evaluative meaning(same meaning, different emotions) collocational syn.(different usage), semantically different syn.(differ slightly in meaning) polysemy(one word may have more than one meaning) homonymy (homophones- two words same in sound, homographs-same in spelling, complete homonyms-same in both sound and spelling) hyponymy(relation between a general wordsuperordinate, and a specific word-hyponyms) antonymy(words that are opposite in meaning) gradable ant.-e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.-e.g. male vs. female relational ant.-e.g. husband vs. wife5.4 Sense relations between sentences: X is synonymous with Y. E.g. He was a bachelor all his life. / He never married. X, TrueY, True; X, False-Y False X is inconsistent with Y. E.g. Johns married. / Johns a bachelor. X, TY, F; X, FY, T X entails Y. E.g. Hes been to France. / Hes been to Europe. X, TY, T; X, FY, may be T or F X presupposes Y. E.g. Johns bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, TY, T; X, FY, T X is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false. X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis-lexical meaning E.g. man-+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE predication(谓项) analysis-sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. -KID, APPLE (LIKE) Tom smokes. -TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. - (BE HOT) 6.1 Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication (meaning in a certain context). Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning Utterance is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or context, it is context-dependent.6.2 Speech act theory: aim to answer “What do we do when using language?”-John Austin in late 1950s locutionary act(言内行为字面意思), illocutionary act(言外行为目的), perlocutionary act(言后行为结果) John Searle: classification of illocutionary acts-five general types of things we do with language Specific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point 1. representatives/assertive: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true E.g. The earth is a globe. 2. directives: trying to get the hearer to do something E.g. Close the door. / Will you close the door? 3. commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action E.g. I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail. 4. expressive: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state E.g. Its kind of you to . / Im sorry for the mess Ive made. 5. declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something E.g. I now declare the meeting open. / I appoint you chairman of the committee. Indirect speech act-primary speech act (goal of communication) + secondary speech act (means by which he achieves the goal) -Searle6.3 Conventional implicature(暗示) & nonconventional implicature-Grice Con. imp. E.g. He is rich but he is not greedy. imp. Rich people are usually greedy. The participants must first of all be willing to cooperate to converse with each other. The general principle is called the Cooperative Principle. (CP) Four maxims(准则) under CP: The maxim of quantity (informative but no more than required), quality (dont say what you believe to be false or what you lack adequate evidence), relation (be relevant), manner (avoid obscurity or ambiguity & be brief and orderly) These maxims can be violated. (when misleading, lying, etc.)Chap. 7 Language change (diachronic 历时的) Historical linguistics phonological changes: vowels-the most dramatic change morphological and syntactic change: morphological: Addition of affixes (Fusion 融合 word word-base +suffix /prefix +base) Loss of affixes-some are via sound changes syntactic: change of word order Old English: subject-object-verb change in negation rule Old English: I love thee not. lexical and semantic change: lexical: Addition of new words-takes place obviously and quickly Coinage (coin for new things and objects), Clipped words (缩略构词), Blending (combine parts of other words, e.g. brunch), Acronyms (首字构词 e.g. WTO), Back-formation (subtract affixes from old words, e.g. donate-from “donation”) Functional shift /Conversion (shift without adding affixes, e.g. to knee/cool; a reject) Borrowing (borrow from other languages, e.g. bonus from Latin, cycle from Greek) Loss of words-takes place gradually over several generations Some words are short-lived because of the discontinuation of the object they name. semantic: three processes of semantic change- semantic broadening: e.g. holiday = holy day in the past, but any rest day today semantic narrowing: e.g. girl = young person of either sex in the past semantic shift: e.g. nice = ignorant a thousand years ago recent trends: moving towards greater informality, influence of American English, influence of science and technology (space travel, computer and internet lang. etc.) causes of language change: development of science &tech., social & political changes and needs, the way children acquire language, grammar simplification, elaboration & complication, etc. No single causeChap. 8 Language and society Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live. (社会语言学) Halliday & Hudson Language is used to communicate meaning, and to establish and maintain social relationships. Social background determines the kind of language one uses, and language reflects ones info. speech community-the social group that is singled out for any special study Various social groups exist within a speech community. A social group may distinguish itself from the rest of the community by the educational background, the occupation, the gender, the age , of the ethnic affili