部分语法.doc

构词法（formation of words）从形态结构来看，词的构成方式有六种：aabbcc, 即abbreviation(缩略法，也称shortening), affixation(词缀法)，backformation(逆成法)，blending(拼缀法)，composition(合成法)，conversion(转类法)。构成方式定义例词abbreviation(缩略法，也称shortening)缩短或首字母联合成词phone telephone; CEO; NBA; MBA; affixation(词缀法)词根加前后缀构成arrival, management, surelybackformation(逆成法)去掉被误认的后缀emotion emote v.blending(拼缀法)剪裁取舍而成smog= smoke + fog; composition(合成法)两个以上的词按一定次序排列而成pencil-box; three-year-old;conversion(转类法)无需借助词缀实现词类的转换looktake a look; break-down; the rich词缀法：最常用的是词缀法，词缀可分为前缀（prefix）和后缀(suffix), 前缀改变词义，后缀改变词类。以下为常见的前后缀：l 常见前缀：（prefix）1) En- + a. or n.=v.Eg. enable, enrich, enlarge, endanger, encourage, encourage, empower2) Un- + a.Eg. Unable, unfair, unfriendly, uncertain, unnecessary, uninterested, unsuccessful, unlucky; unexpected, unlimited, uneducated, unpolluted3) Dis- + v.Eg. Dislike, discover, dishonest a.4) Re- + v.Eg. Reopen, retell, rewrite, rebuild, remarry5) In-(im-, il-) + a. Eg. Indirect, infinite, incapable, invisible, independent; impossible, impolite, impatient; illegal,6) Mis- + v.Eg. Mislead, misunderstand, misuse, misinform, misprint7) Non- + n. Eg. Nonhuman, nonstop, nonprofit, nonsmoker, nonpaymentl 常见后缀：(suffix)1) 动词名词Eg. Assignassignment, manage, pay, move, equip, judge, improve, achieve, treat, Eg. Concentrateconcentration, direct, invent, promote, dictate, translate, create; organize, foundation, specialize, Eg. appearappearance, guide, accept, perform; transfertransference, refer, exist, occur, differ, depend Eg. teachteaching, feel, mean, draw, train, learn, save, surround Eg. presspressure, fail, please, Eg. marrymarriage, store, pass, post, bag, Eg. arrivearrival, refusal2) 名词动词Eg. woodwooden, wool, gold,3) 动词形容词Eg. Attractattractive, act, relate, protect, progress, create, Eg. relyreliable, suit, move, work, count, change, accept, responsible, Eg. interestinterested, tired, amused Eg. astonishastonishing, exciting, interesting4) 形容词动词 Eg. Specialspecialize, real, modern, popular, industrial, global Eg. Widen, shorten5) 形容词名词Eg. realreality, productive, complex, probable, stable, pure, Eg. illillness, kind, weak, helpless, thoughtful, careless, creative,Eg. truetruth, warm, width, death, length, strengthEg. patientpatience, efficientefficiency, significance,confident,different, accurate(cy)6) 名词形容词Eg. Traditiontraditional, nation, person, center, culture, nature, practice, act,Eg. carecareful, beautiful, useful, helpful, faith, fruit, handEg. cloudcloudy, sun, rain, wind, thirst, hunger, anger, health, wealth,worthEg. weekweekly, day, month, love, cost, friend, Eg. foolfoolish, self, childEg. manmanlike, womanlike, homelikeEg. basebasic, period, history, economy, hero,Eg. famefamous, nervous, dangerous, poisonous, 7) 形容词副词Eg. Elderly, unlimitedly, particularly, independently,surely,luckily, usually,really,carefully8) 其他-ship. Citizenship, hardship, friendship, relationship, leadership, membership, scholarship, -less. Fearless, careless, -ist. futurefuturist, typist, novelist, violinist, communist, receptionist-ian. musicmusician, electrician, Christian, Egyptian-ee. Employee, interviewee, -er, -or. Employer, interviewer, writer, teacher, waiter, actor, tractor, -ess. Actress, hostess, waitress, l 按结构来分，可分为简单句、并列句、和（主从）复合句。只有一个主语和谓语的句子成为简单句。将两个简单句用并列连词连接起来便构成了并列句，而用从属连词连接则构成主从复合句。而从句又分为三大类：名词性从句、形容词性从句和副词性从句，其中名词性从句又包括主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句；形容词性从句即定语从句（形容词常作定语），也称关系分句；副词性从句即状语从句（副词常作状语）。1) 名词性从句：在句中起名词词组的作用，通常由从属连词that引导，也可由who, whom, whose, what, which, whoever, whatever, whichever等连接代词引导，还可由where, when, how, why等连接副词引导。 主语为从句时，谓语动词用单数。 除what/whatever/whoever引导的主语从句，其他多可由it作形式主语。 宾语从句后带有补足语时，常用it作形式宾语。 同位语从句极易与定语从句混淆，同位语表内容，而定语表限定。 名词性从句的语序为陈述语序，而非疑问语序。主语从句：如：a. It is quite clear that he will come.b. What caused the fire is still unknown.c. Why he left here is not known to any of us.d. How the book will sell depends on its author.e. Whether she comes or not doesnt concern me.宾语从句：如：a. We never doubt that he is honest.b. She suggested that he do it at once.c. Can you tell us who is responsible for the fire?d. Please explain why this is impossible.e. Nobody can tell when she will arrive.f. Do you know if/whether any decision has been arrived at?表语从句：如：a. The fact is that he didnt notice the car until too late.b. The question is why he likes the place so much.c. The problem is not who will go but who will stay.同位语从句：如：a. They had to face the fact that the nearest gas station is 30 miles away.b. My original question, why he did it at all, has not been answered.c. Have you any idea how soon they are coming?同位语从句中的名词多为fact, question, idea, information, news, advice等。介词宾语：如：a. Before I came downstairs I had prepared myself very carefully for what I must say.b. You must give it back to whoever it belongs to.2) 形容词性从句：主要作名词的修饰语，故也称为定语从句；通常由关系代词who, which, that, whom, whose等和关系副词when, where, why等引导，故也称关系从句。 一看先行，二看成分。即确定引导词时，首先看先行词（被修饰的名词）确定指人还是指物，然后看引导词在从句中作何成分。在以上关系代词和关系副词中，who指人,作主语； which指物,作主语或宾语；that既可指人,也可指物；whom指人,作宾语；whose作定语；when表时间, where表地点, why表原因（其先行词只有the reason）. 关系代词在从句中作主语时，从句谓语动词的人称和数与先行词一致。 关系代词在从句中作宾语时，可省略。 How不能引导定语从句。 定语从句又可分为限定性的和非限定性的，限定性定语从句其修饰限定作用，与先行词不用逗号隔开；非限定性定语从句起补充说明作用，所以也称描述性定语从句，与先行词用逗号隔开。 多用who的情况：先行词为person, people, those等；先行词为he, they, all, any, one等；非限定性定语从句中指人时。多用that的情况：先行词兼指人与物时；先行词为who或which时避免重复；先行词被the only, the very, the last, the same等修饰；先行词为不定代词all, few, little, much, something, anything, nothing, everything, someone, anybody, nobody, none等时；先行词前有序数词或形容词最高级修饰时；先行词被all, any, every, few, little, no, some修饰。多用which情况：离先行词较远；先行词为those + 复数形式的名词（如goods）；非限定性定语从句指物；介词之后。3) 副词性从句：即状语从句，在句的位置比较灵活，可以位于句首、句中或句尾。按语义可分为时间、地点、方式、原因、结果、目的、条件、让步等。分类引导词注意时间 After,as, before, once, since,till, until, when, whenever, while, as soon as, hardlywhen, no soonerthan, the moment, now (that)etc.主句将来时从句现在时；“刚就”主句过去完成时，从句过去时地点Where,wherever,anywhere,everywhere方式As, as if, as though, the way, how 原因Because,as, since, for the reason that,for fear that, considering that,in thatBecause必然原因，回答why; as原因明显或已知事实；since既然结果So(that),such that,with the result that置于主句之后目的So,so that,in order that, lest(以免，以防，书面语，后用虚拟式)，in case(不用虚拟)从句常用情态动词，置于主句之后；条件If,unless,suppose,supposing(that),assuming(that),providing (that),provided (that),in the event(that),just so (that),given (that), on condition that,as long as,分为非真实条件和真实条件，非真实条件要求用虚拟语气让步Though,although,if,even though,even if,when,while,whereas, granting that,granted that,admitting that,for all (that),in spite of the fact that, wh- + -ever(口语no matter+wh-)正式文体中，as,though引导的从句以a., n., v.(原形)开头，置于主句前。如：Old as I am,I can still fight.比较Asas, than, 1. 时态：表示谓语动词发生的时间和方式。l 时态的变化主要体现在谓语动词的变化和时间状语的不同上。l 谓语动词的基本形式： 式时一般进行完成完成进行否问助动词be v.-inghave v.-edhave been v.-ing现在（三单）# write/writes#am/is/are writing#* have/has written#* have/has been writing过去（过去式）# wrote#* was/were writing#* had writtenhad been writing将来（will）# will writewill be writing#* will have written will have been writing过去将来（Would）would write would be writing would have written would have been writing注：#为常见，*为重点，为少见。l 常见时态时态例句意义时间状语一般现在时My father doesnt smoke.Our university stands at the foot of the GreenMountain.What do you think, Jane?If it is fine tomorrow, well go there.客观存在；现阶段经常发生的动作；现时状态或现在瞬间动作；时间或条件从句中表将来 Always, often, usually,sometimes frequently, never, seldom, every day,etc. 一般过去时He left ten minutes ago.He worked in a bank all his life.过去发生的动作或存在的状态Yesterday, last week， ago, once(曾经)一般将来时Will/shall +v.; be going to; be + -ing; be to+v.;be about to将要发生的动作或存在的状态。Tomorrow,nextweek,Soon,this evening,in现在进行时Hurry up! Im waiting for you.He is working in a factory these days.目前或现阶段正在进行的动作Now, Look! Listen!过去进行时What were you doing yesterday at 7 p.m?When I went downstairs, they were already eating lunch.过去某一时间正在进行的动作过去某一特定时间 将来进行时Ill be watching TV at 7 p.m.将来某一时间正在进行的动作将来的具体时间现在完成时He has turned off the light.(仍关着)He has lived here since 1960.（至今仍住这里）已经完成的动作或状态对现在造成影响；动作发生在过去但一直持续到现在Since, by, for, 过去完成时He knew he had met herbeforeBy six oclock they had worked 12 hours.过去的过去发生的动作过去的过去将来完成时Ill have lived here for ten years by the end of this nonth.将来某一时间之前完成的动作并对将来某时间产生影响 By the end of, by the time,现在完成进行 时Ive been writing letters for an hour.Whos been eating my cake?过去发生的某动作一直持续到现在不间断for2. 被动语态： 英语动词有两种态：主动态(active voice)和被动态(passive voice).当主语为动作的执行者即施动者时，动词用主动态；如果主语是动作的承受者即受动者，动词便用被动态。因此不及物动词和系动词通常不用于被动态。被动态的基本形式为：be + -ed，也有get+-ed.被动句通常是因为说话人不知道施动者为谁，或认为施动者无关紧要，或故意避免道出施动者，或为了特别强调施动者才使用的。有时为了避免中途变更主语或为了上下句紧密衔接而采用被动结构。此外，当表达“据说”“据-”时，常用被动结构：it is said that, it is reported that, it is known to all, it must be pointed out；还有一种汉语中不出现主语的句子（如：城里又办起了一所大学。Another university has been founded in this city.），通常用被动结构来表达。如：a. Peter was helped by John.b. This book was first published in 1975.c. He said it was being repaired.d. The road had been opened to traffic.e. These shoes will have to be repaired.f. It cant have been lost in the post, can it?g. The boy got hurt on his way home from work.h. I was given a watch on my birthday.i. The windows have been painted white.j. The children are well looked after.k. When was the hospital set up?l. His books were taken great care of.=Great care was taken fo his books.m. It must be pointed out that China is a developing country and will always take sides with the Third World.n. It is reported that he was driving carelessly.-He is reported to have been driving carelessly.6. 虚拟语气（Subjunctive Mood）：虚拟式是说话人为表示一种假设的情况、一种主观的愿望，即认为动词所表示的动作或状态并非事实或仅是主观设想时所用的动词形式。主要有两种：虚拟条件和要求、愿望、命令。前者动词变化较多，后者常为(should)+v. 1) 虚拟条件(非真实条件)：常由if引导。时间从句主句现 在Were / 过去式Would/should(一人称)/mitht/could + v.过 去Had + -ed(过去分词)Would/could/might + have + v.-ed将 来过去式/were to+v./should+v.Would/could/might + v.如：a. If I followed his advice, I would/should be a fool.b. If I knew how it worked, I could tell you what to do.c. He would/could/mitht visit us if he were/was in town.d. We would/could/might have called you if we had known your telephoned number.e. If our train were to arrive punctually, we should have time to visit your sister.f. If it rained tomorrow, the football match would be put off.* 条件从句与结果主句所表时间不一致，则作相应调整。如：a. If I had spoken to her yesterday, I should know what to do now.b. you would be much better now if you had taken the medicine.* if 的省略：省略if, were 或had提前。如：a. Were it to do it, I should rely on you.b. Had it not been for your mistake, we would have had a better time in the party.* 含蓄条件：条件暗含于词或短语中。如：a. Without electricity, there would be no modern industry.b. but for your help we couldnt have succeeded in the interview.c. It would be easier to do it this way.* 不用if引导的条件从句：常由when, unless, lest, suppose, as if, for fear that, in case, on condition that等引导。如：a. Unless I were ill, I wouldnt be absent.b. She is walking slowly as if she were tired.* 省去结果主句的非真实条件句：if only “要是-就好了”。如：a. If only he were here.b. If only I had worked hard.2) 表示建议、要求、愿望、命令时，谓语动词（should）+ v.。* 宾语从句中：advise, arrange, command, demand, desire, insist, order,propose,recommend, request,require, suggest等后的宾语从句中。如：a. The manager demands that the new secretary (should) have a thorough knowledge of the personnel.* 同位语从句或表语从句中：除以上动词所对应的名词外，还有idea, motion, Its time that。如：a. Your advice that she wait till next week is reasonable.b. Their decision was that the school remain closed.* 主语从句中或带有以下形容词为补足语的宾语从句中：以下列形容词为表语或补足语时：除上述动词对应的形容词(包括上述动词的被动态)，还有essential, important, impossible, necessary，natural等。如：a. It is necessary that he come back without delay.b. I thought it advisable that an armed guard stand in readiness.3) 其他结构：* wish后，与现在相反的愿望，用过去式；与过去相反，用过去完成时；与将来相反，用would+v.如：a. I wish it were true.b. I really wish I had passed CET-4.c. I wish I would/could pass CET-4.* would rather/would sooner后，一般用过去式。如：a. I would rather you came tomorrow.b. Id sooner she left the heavy work to someone else.注：suggest 为“表明”之意时，后面不用虚拟。如：a. The handwriting on the envelope suggested that the letter _from a lady.A. shuole be B. might be C. must be D. would be7. 强调：强调的方法有很多，但最常见的是使用强调句型It is(was) +被强调部分+ that/who分句，该句型可强调除谓语动词外的句子成分，但通常不强调表语。而谓语动词常借助助动词来表示强调。如：a. It was John who/that helped me with my English.b. It was in 2000 that we knew each other first.c. I do like swimming.8倒装：通常为了表示强调，将句子的某部分前置，而状语的前置常引起倒装。倒装又分为部分和全部倒装。主要有如下情况：l 句首状语为方位词或拟声词，谓语动词为go, come等表示位置转移的动作动词时，常用全部倒装。如：a. There was a suddeng gust of wind and away went his hat.b. Here comes Tony/the bus. 但Here he/it comes.l 句首状语为表示地点的介词短语时，也用全部倒装。如：a. From the valley came a tinckling sound.l 句首状语为否定词或带有否定意义的词时，一般引起部分倒装。如：a. Never have I found him in such a good mood.b. Hardly had he finished his work when the telephone rang.c. Not only did he complain about the food, he also refused to pay for it.l Only + 状语置于句首时，部分倒装。如：a. Only yesterday did he find out that his watch was missing.b. Only through luck did he mange to get some tickets.c. Only because there were some cancelled bookings did he get some tickets in the end.l 以关联词so(that)开头的句子，引起部分倒装。如：a. So small was the mark that I could hardly see it. b. So quickly did the workmen finish their work that they were given a bonus(奖金).c. So much does he worry about his financial position that he cant sleep at night.9. 非谓语动词：也称为非限定动词，不受主语限制。不可作谓语，可作其他成分。非谓语动词既有动词的性质（有式和语态的变化；可被状语修饰；vt.须有宾语），也有非动词的性质（相当于名词或形容词）。可分为不定式、动名词、和分词（包括现在分词和过去分词）。非谓语动词句法功能注意重点不定式除谓语外的其他成分作宾语；to 的省略动名词相当于n.作主语、宾语、表语、定语作宾语；作定语时与现分的区别；分词相当于 a.作定语、表语、状语和补足语作状语；现分表进行，主谓关系，过分表完成，动宾关系1) 不定式：To see is to believe.(主语)It seems quite easy to use a computer. (it作形式主语)She cose to teach in the countryside. (宾语)She found it difficult to answer the question. (后有宾补时it作形式宾语)Stories of TV lovers are hard to believe.（主语补足语）The purpose of advertising is to attract peoples attention to their commodities, prices and services. （表语）The next train to arrive is from New York. (定语，主谓关系)Do you have any questions to ask? (定语，动宾关系)My mother said a lot to encourage me.（状语）What decided him to give up his job? (补足语)He gave the order to start the attack.(同位语)l 常接不定式作宾语的动词：agree, aim apply, arrange, choose, claim, decide, demand, desire, determine, expect, hope, learn, manage, offer, prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, threaten, venture, volunteer等。常接不定式作宾语补足语的动词：感观动词see, hear, watch, feel; 使役动词have, let, make, get; 心理状态动词consider, declare, find, prove, think, believe, discover, imagine, judge, supopose, understand(常加to be+a.,且to be可省); 劝许禁动词advise, allow, forbid, permit, recommend, require, urge。l 疑问词+不定式可作主语、宾语、和表语：When to start has not been decided./ The difficulty is how to remember so many words in two months./ I dont know what to do./ I can tell you where to get this book.l 不带to的不定式：使役动词后和感观动词后作宾补（变为被动语态时要加to）；help后做宾语或宾补时可加可不加；介词except/but,前有do,不带to; 前无do,要加to; why/why not 之后，紧跟其后不带to.2) 动名词：Reading aloud is very important in learning a foreign language.Its no use asking her for advice./Its a waste of time discussing such matters./It is no good selling all your products at reduced prices.Her job was washing clothes. She was washing clothes.Smoking is not allowed here. To smoke so much is not good for you.He always avoids giving us a direct answer.l 常接动名词作宾语的动词：avoid, appreciate, consider, delay, deny, dislike, enjoy, escape, fancy, finish, imagine, include, keep, mind, miss, postpone, practise, recall, resist, risk, stop, suggest/ put off, give up, keep on, cant helpl Love, like, hate, prefer, begin, start, continue, intend, attempt, propose, deserve, need, want, cant bear, cant afford后既可带动名词，也可带不定式。其中*want和need+动名词有被动意义: The MP3 needs repairing/to be repaired.*like, hate, prefer+动名词表示一般倾向，+不定式表示特定或具体某次行为：I hate smoking. I hate to smoke in the classroom. *try+to do表示尽力做，try+doing则表示试着*regret,forget, remember+to do表示该事情未做或未发生，+doing则表示该事情已经发生*propose+doing表示建议，+to do 表示打算去*mean+doing 表示意味着，+to do 表示意在：This means helping you./I meant to help you.*stop,quit+doing作宾语，+to do 作目的状语l 动名词作定语表示被修饰名词的功能、用途，与被修饰的名词无逻辑上的主谓关系；现在分词作定语时与被修饰名词有逻辑上的主谓关系，分词是名词发出的动作。Working method/working people; sleeping car/sleeping boy; drinking water, drawing paper, reading materiall 动名词的逻辑主语可用物主代词或名词属格修饰，但非正式英语中，特别是动名词作宾语时，人称代词和通格名词更常见。Do you mind my/me making a suggestion? Im pleased with Johns/John paying his income tax in time.3) 分词：He is an attacking player.Who is the girl standing by the door?Hearing the news, they all jumped with joy.If translated word by word, the sentence will be meaningless.He stood there with his hands crossed before him.Dont you see him coming towards us?l 现在分词表示主动和正在进行，过去分词表示被动和已经完成：burning forest/burned skin; developing countries/developed countriesl 分词作状语时，逻辑主语一般为句子主语，为了明确表示时间、条件等，有时可在分词前加when,while, if；分词有独立的逻辑上的主语时称为独立结构，可加在with 之后。分词可在feel, find, get, have, hear, keep, notice, watch等后作宾补。在feel, hear, notice, see, watch等后用现在分词表示动作正在进行和发展中，用不定式则表示动作全过程已经结束。She saw the man getting on the truck./she saw the man get on the truck and drive off.l 非谓语动词的一般式，进行式，完成式和被动态出现相对较少，不一一列出。10. 主谓一致：主语和谓语动词之间的一致关系常由三个原则支配：语法一致原则，意义一致原则，和就近原则。语法一致即主语的中心名词和谓语动词在单复数形式上的一致，名词是复数，动词就用复数，名词是单数，动词也用单数；意义一致是指主谓的一致关系并非取决于语法上的单复数形式，而是取决于主语的单复数意义；就近原则则是谓语动词数的形式取决于最靠近它的名词的单复数形式。l -s结尾的名词作主语的主谓一致问题l 集体名