石油大学工程硕士基础英语考试内容整理.doc

阅读： Unite three； Rats and men47页1-3段， 1 Professor N. R. F. Maier of the University of Michigan performed a series of experiments several years ago in which neurosis* is induced* in rats. The rats are first trained to jump off the edge of a platform at one of two doors. If the rat jumps to the right, the door holds fast, and it bumps its nose and falls into a net; if it jumps to the left, the door opens, and the rat finds a dish of food. When the rats are well trained to this reaction, the situation is changed. The food is put behind the other door, so that in order to get their reward they now have to jump to the right instead of to the left. (Other changes, such as marking the two doors in different ways, may also be introduced by the experimenter.) If the rat fails to figure out the new system, so that each time it jumps it never knows whether it is going to get food or bump its nose, it finally gives up and refuses to jump at all. At this stage, Dr. Maier says, Many rats prefer to starve rather than make a choice. 2 Next, the rats are forced to make a choice, being driven to it by blasts* of air or an electric shock. Animals which are induced to respond in the insoluble* problem situation, says Dr. Maier, settle down to a specific reaction (such as jumping solely at the left hand door) which they continue to execute* regardless of consequences. The response chosen under these conditions becomes fixated. Once the fixation* appears, the animal is incapable of learning an adaptive response in this situation. When a reaction to the left-hand door is thus fixated, the right-hand door may be left open so that the food is plainly visible. Yet the rat, when pushed, continues to jump to the left, becoming more panicky* each time. When the experimenter persists in forcing the rat to make choices, it may go into convulsions*, racing around wildly, injuring its claws, bumping into chairs and tables, then going into a state of violent trembling, until it falls into a coma*. In this passive state, it refuses to eat, refuses to take any interest in anything: it can be rolled up into a ball or suspended* in the air by its legsthe rat has ceased to care what happens to it. It has had a nervous breakdown. 3 It is the insolubility of the rats problem that leads to its nervous breakdown, and, as Dr. Maier shows in his studies of disturbed children and adults, rats and human beings seem to go through pretty much the same stages. First, they are trained to make habitually a given choice when confronted by a given problem; secondly, they get a terrible shock when they find that the conditions have changed and that the choice doesnt produce the expected results; third, whether through shock, anxiety, or frustration*, they may fixate on the original choice and continue to make that choice regardless of consequences; fourth, they sullenly refuse to act at all; fifth, when by external compulsion* they are forced to make a choice, they again make the one they were originally trained to make - and again get a bump on the nose; finally, even with the goal visible in front of them, to be attained* simply by making a different choice, they go crazy out of frustration. They tear around wildly; they sulk in corners and refuse to eat; bitter, cynical*, disillusioned*, they cease to care what happens to them. 1 密执安大学的N.R.F. 麦耶教授几年前做过一系列可以诱导鼠产生“ 神经官能症” 的实验。首先训练鼠由平台边缘跳向两个门中的一个。如果鼠向右跳，右门是碰不开的，那么鼠就撞了鼻子并掉进网里；如果鼠向左跳，左门就打开，鼠就会找到一碟食物。在鼠已很熟悉这一反应时，就改变情况：把食物放在另外一扇门后，这样鼠要想得到犒赏就不能向左跳，而要向右跳了。( 实验者也可采用其他变化形式，比如用不同的方式标记两个门。) 如果鼠弄不懂新规则，它每次跳时决不知是会得到食物还是会撞鼻子。最终它就会放弃，拒绝再跳。到这一步，麦耶博士说：“ 许多鼠宁愿挨饿也不再做选择。”2 第二步，对鼠施加强大气流或电击，赶它，强迫它做出选择。“ 处于不能解决的难题之中而被迫做出反应的动物，” 麦耶博士说，“ 最后总是落到一个特定的反应上( 比如只4 向左跳)，不顾结果如何都总是做出这一反应这种条件下所做出的反应便固定不变了一旦出现了这种固态，动物就没有能力学会适应性的反应了。” 一旦向左跳的反应被固定下来时，可以让右门开着使食物呈现在眼前。可是鼠被驱赶时却仍旧向左跳，并且每次都愈来愈惶恐不安。实验者继续迫使鼠做出选择时，鼠开始惊厥不安，四下狂奔，弄伤爪子，撞上桌椅，然后浑身剧烈颤抖，直到昏迷不醒。处于这样的被动情况，鼠拒绝进食，对一切不感兴趣：可以把它卷成一团或擒住双腿倒挂空中无论怎样摆布它，它都无动于衷。这时的鼠已是“ 神经崩溃” 了。3 鼠所面临问题的“ 不可解决性” 导致了它的神经崩溃，而麦耶博士在他对心理失常的小孩和成人的研究报告中表明，鼠和人经历的各个阶段大同小异。首先是两者受训练，在面对某一问题时都习惯地做出某一选择；然后，发现条件已改变而原来的选择并不能产生预期的效果时，两者都大吃一惊；再次，不论是出于震惊、焦虑还是受挫，两者都会执著于最初的选择，不管结果，一意孤行；接着，悻悻然拒绝采取行动；而后，在被迫做出选择时，两者又总做出最初训练时所做出的选择且再次碰壁；最后，即使目标就在眼前，只要做出不同的选择就唾手可得时，两者又都由于以前受到的挫折而发狂。他们疯狂地四处撕抓；或是躲在角落里赌气拒食；他们变得辛酸怀恨、不信任一切、心灰意冷，无论人们怎样对待他们，他们都无动于衷。149页全文，Unit Seven : Good taste, bad taste 1 The things you own tell stories about you as surely as the Joneses youre keeping up with. Each purchase reveals something your partner or closest friend may not realise from your intimate exchanges. Every time you buy something you exercise your taste. 2 Before the age of mass production, taste used to be the province of an educated elite*. But when the entire population became consumers for the first time, taste came out of the salons* and onto the streets. Suddenly, everybody had the opportunity to make a choice. 3 There cannot objectively* be such a thing as good or bad. It is rather as the novelist Arnold Bennett put it: good taste might be better than bad, but bad taste is certainly better than no taste at all. 4 Exercising taste is not difficult. You decide what stories you want your possessions to tell and then get on and orchestrate* them. But be warned: not every story is a flattering* one. Buy an onyx* ashtray* and you might as well rent poster* space and tell the world “I am the dupe* of cynical* manipulators* who have succeeded in seducing* me with flashy* rubbish. 5 Since the 18th century when taste was first discussed, people have believed that it was an endowment* of an elite, handed down to those poor souls below who wanted to better themselves. This opened up the market to tastemakers - either the patrician bureaucrats of Victorias reign, or the teams of slick decorators of today who have made careers out of introducing new money to old furniture. 6 But is the question of taste just one of household* hints? No. Taste is an expression of a whole system of values. And that means yours. 7 To achieve an understanding of taste means that you should have conviction* in your choices. If you look at the history of taste you will see that it is like a sketch* of the history of civilisation: for 200 years rococo*, classical, gothic*, streamlined* and then Laura Ashley have all in turn* been acceptable expressions of taste. Only gifted artists and designers can predict these changes but anyone can understand the principles. Although the history of taste has been one of change, confrontation* and reversal*, certain patterns constantly recur*. Learn these and youre in there with the tastemakers. 8 The rules are simple. No taste is to acquiesce* and act like a pygmy* enchanted* by beads* and mirrors. With no taste you take what is offered and leave your soul undisturbed. Good taste is to care and to choose, to make your own surroundings and even your own appearance more pleasing and more interesting by positive acts of discrimination*. 9 Underpinning* what is always thought to be good taste are recurrent* ideas such as refinement, restraint*, appropriateness* and good manners. These all lead to delight; the alternative* is vulgar* excess* which is ultimately* unsatisfying*. 10 So, bear these ideas in mind and look at what you own and think about the stories your possessions are telling. 11 Why do you have a gold wristwatch? This metal is inappropriate* for the intended purpose. Steel or plastic is better. Perhaps you want to look like a prosperous arms dealer*. 12 Your Constable reproduction* in a pseudo-something* frame says I know nothing about art and care less. A Heineken poster would have been more discriminating. 13 Your carpet with its hideous* pattern was designed to do one thing only: disguise dirt. Would you not be prouder with a clean simple colour? 14 Your choice of the “Honesty” pattern toaster* declares you to be the sort of person who will cheerfully admit “I love buying cynical junk*. Anything the marketing department does is good enough for me.” If “country kitchen” is the style you want, youd be better off* buying a griddle*. 15 These products are all dishonest. They would rarely be chosen by people with genuine bad taste and never by people with good. They would be purchased only by people with no taste at all . and no taste at all means the same as I dont care. 16 In the future you will be exposed to more and more choice, not less. As the speed of change brings design nearer to fashion, then decisions about taste will have to be made more and more regularly. 17 At first this will lead to an even greater profusion* of choice, perhaps even more than during the explosion of production and consumption* during the consumer revolution of 100 and more years ago. But soon people will find that when anything goes . not much really does. 18 When more consumers exercise taste, manufacturers will be required to make better and more dignified* products. It cannot be long before it is generally realised that perfect proportions and understated* elegance* are superior to meretricious* ornament, flashy surfaces and products outstanding only for the degree of social pretentiousness* they exude*. 19 If you think about it you will find that you prefer neatness and restraint. In the end these qualities are more rewarding than confusion and excess. And, remember, taste is by no means a matter of expense: a slice of good Cheddar is better than many an expensive meal. 20 These are the Rules of Taste: refinement, restraint, appropriateness and good manners. 21 Dare you be without them? 1 你所拥有的东西，正像你所追赶的社会时尚一样，无疑能说明你的情趣。你买的每件物品都显示出你的某种爱好，而这种爱好是你的伴侣或最亲密的朋友在你们的亲密交往中也没有察觉到的。你每次购物都在运用你的情趣。2 在大规模生产的时代以前，情趣是属于有教养的社会名流的范畴。但是，当全民都第一次成为消费者之后，情趣就走出沙龙来到了大街上。突然间，每个人都有了进行选择的机会。3 不可能客观存在像“高雅” 或“ 庸俗” 这样的东西。还是小说家阿诺德贝内特说得好：高雅的情趣也许比庸俗的好，但庸俗的情趣肯定比根本不讲情趣要强。4 运用情趣并不难。你先确定你希望你所拥有的各种东西反映出何种情趣，然后再根据情况进行安排和协调。但是，请注意：并非每一个决定或选择都会令你感到高兴的。如果你要买一个玛瑙烟灰缸，那还不如租一块广告牌向世界宣布：“我上当了，让那些玩世不恭的家伙骗了，他们用华而不实的玩意儿诱我上了钩。”5 自18 世纪首次讨论情趣以来，人们就认为情趣是高贵者们赏给那些希望提高修养的可怜的下层人的一种恩赐。这就向倡导时髦风尚的人( 他们或是维多利亚统治时期的贵族式官僚，或是今天专门从事介绍人们花钱买老式家具的一帮圆滑的“ 室内装饰家”) 打开了市场。6 但是，情趣问题只是属于家庭的一个线索吗? 不。情趣是一整套价值观体系的体现。这是指你自己的价值观。7 要做到理解情趣就意味着你应该确信自己的选择。看看情趣的历史，你就会发现，它就像是人类文明史的梗概：200年来，洛可可式、古典式、哥特式、流线式以及后来的劳拉阿什利式都相继成为受欢迎的情趣表现形式。虽然只有才华横溢的艺术家和设计师才能预见这种种变化，但是任何人都能理解其中的原则。尽管情趣的历史是一部变化、对抗和回潮的历史，但还是有某些模式不断反复出现。了解这些模式，你就会和倡导时髦风尚的人相处得很好。8 规则很简单。没有一种情趣是默然接受和像俾格米人那样陶醉于水晶珠和魔镜。不懂情趣，人家给你什么你就接受什么，心灵不为所动。高雅的情趣就是要在意，要选择，要通过积极的鉴别行动而使你的环境甚至你个人的仪表更讨人喜爱，更惹人注目。9 始终被人们认为是高雅的情趣，证实有着一些反复出现的观念，比如优雅、有节制、举止得体。这些品质都能引起愉悦；反之，过分粗俗终归不会令人满意。10 因此，请将这些观念牢记在心，看看你所拥有的东西，再想想你所拥有的东西所表明的情趣。11 你为什么要戴只金手表? 用金子做手表并不恰当。用钢或塑料会更好些。或许你是想要看起来像个发家的军火商吧。12 你那装在仿真画框里的康斯特布尔油画的复制品向世人表明：“ 我不懂艺术，也不在乎。” 若是一幅海内肯啤酒的广告画倒是显得更与众不同。13 你那图案难看的地毯只是为了一个目的：乔装打扮“ 肮脏”。如果你有一块洁净而色彩朴素的地毯，你不觉得更自豪些吗?14 你选择的带“ 诚实” 图案的面包片烤箱则向人们宣布你是这样一种人这种人会愉快地承认：“ 我喜欢买那些玩世不恭的人卖的蹩脚货。不论推销部门推出任何东西，对我来说都不错” 如果“ 田园厨房” 是你想要的式样，那你买个烘糕饼用的烤盘会更好些。15 这些产品都是骗人的。情趣真正庸俗的人也很少挑选这类东西，而情趣高雅的人则从不会挑选这类东西。只有那些根本不讲情趣的人才买它们而_根本不讲情趣就等于说：“ 我无所谓。”16 将来，你会越来越多地碰到需要做出选择的情况，而不会比现在少。由于变化速度的加快，使得款式紧跟时尚，有关情趣的决定只能是越来越经常的事了。17 最初这会导致更大量的选择机会，可能甚至比一百多年前消费革命时期出现的生产与消费大爆炸时还要多。但是，人们很快就会发现，当任何产品都能推出来的时候，并没有很多产品真正为消费者所喜爱。18 当有更多的消费者运用情趣时，就需要生产厂商制造出更好的、更体面的产品。不需要很久人们就会普遍认识到，完美的比例以及含蓄的优雅要优于浮华的装饰、华而不实的外表和那些旨在炫耀社会地位非凡而引起他人看重的产品。19 如果你考虑一下就会发现，你更喜欢整齐和有节制。这些特点终归要比混乱和无节制更令人感到满足。还有，请记住，情趣决不是花钱多少的问题；吃一片好的切德奶酪比许多奢华的筵席还好。20 有关情趣的规则就是这些：优雅、有节制、举止得体。21 你敢不要这些吗?277页1-4段；Unit Twelve A Red Light for Scofflaws 1 Law-and-order is the longest-running and probably the best-loved political issue in U.S. history. Yet it is painfully apparent that millions of Americans who would never think of themselves as lawbreakers, let alone criminals, are taking increasing liberties with the legal codes that are designed to protect and nourish their society. Harvard Sociologist David Riesman suspects that a majority of Americans have blithely* taken to committing supposedly minor derelictions* as a matter of course. Already, Riesman says, the ethic of U.S. society is in danger of becoming this: youre a fool if you obey the rules. 2 Nothing could be more obvious than the evidence supporting Riesman. Scofflaws abound* in amazing variety. The graffitiprone* turn public surfaces into visual rubbish. Bicyclists often ride as though two wheeled vehicles are exempt* from all traffic laws. Litterbugs* convert their communities into trash dumps. Widespread flurries of ordinances* have failed to clear public places of high decibel* portable radios, just as earlier laws failed to wipe out the beer soaked hooliganism* that plagues* many parks. Tobacco addicts remain hopelessly blind to signs that say NO SMOKING. Respectably dressed pot* smokers no longer bother to duck out of* public sight to pass around a joint. The flagrant* use of cocaine is a festering scandal* in middle-and-upper class life. And then there are (hello, Everybody!) the jaywalkers*. 3 The dangers of scofflawry vary widely. The person who illegally spits on the sidewalk remains disgusting, but clearly poses* less risk to others than the company that illegally buries hazardous chemical waste in an unauthorized location. The farebeater on the subway presents less threat to life than the landlord who ignores fire safety statutes*. The most immediately and measurably dangerous scofflawry, however, also happens to be the most visible. The culprit* is the American driver, whose lawless activities today add up to a colossal* public nuisance. The hazards range from routine double parking that jams city streets to the drunk driving that kills some 25 000 people and injures at least 650 000 others yearly. Illegal speeding on open highways? New surveys show that on some interstate highways 83% of all drivers are currently ignoring the federal 55 m.p.h. speed limit 4 The most flagrant scofflaw of them all is the red-light runner. The flouting* of stop signals has got so bad in Boston that residents tell an anecdote* about a cabby* who insists that red lights are just for decoration. The power of the stoplight to control traffic seems to be waning everywhere. In Los Angeles, red-light running has become perhaps the citys most common traffic violation. In New York city, going through an intersection is like Russian roulette*. Admits Police Commissioner Robert J. McGuire: Today its a 50-50 toss-up as to whether people will stop for a red light. Meanwhile, his own police largely ignore the lawbreaking. 1 法律和秩序是美国历史上持续时间最长的、也可能是政治上最热门的话题。然而，显然令人烦恼的是，数以百万计的美国人尽管从没有认为自己会违反法律，更不用说会成为罪犯了，却正在越来越随便地对待那些专为保护与造福他们的社会所制定的法规。当然，现今确实有些时候似乎无视法律代表了未来的潮流。哈佛大学的社会学家大卫莱斯曼怀疑，大多数美国人喜欢犯那种他们认为是无关紧要的玩忽职守的错误。莱斯曼说，美国社会的伦理道德已经处于这样的危险之中，即 “如果你遵纪守法，你就是个傻瓜”。2 支持莱斯曼观点的证据是再明显不过的。违法乱纪者屡见不鲜、无奇不有，达到了惊人的程度。墙上的乱涂乱画把公共场所的外观糟蹋得不堪入目。骑自行车的人横冲直撞，似乎两个车轮的交通工具可以不受任何交通法规的束缚。乱丢垃圾的人把他们的生活区域变成了垃圾场。正如以前的法令未能扫除危害公园的满身酒气的流氓阿飞一样，广泛宣传的法规也未能消除公共场所的高分贝便携式收音机。吸烟成瘾的人们对“不准吸烟”的告示牌熟视无睹。衣冠楚楚的吸大麻的人再也不像从前那样躲开公众的视线偷偷摸摸地传递带大麻的香烟了。在中上层人士中毫无顾忌地使用可卡因已成为令人烦恼的丑闻。而且，(好家伙，人数真不少啊!）还有随意横穿马路的人呢。3 违法行为的危害差别极大。在人行道上随地吐痰当然令人厌恶，但是很明显，比起那些违法地在未经许可的地区掩埋危险化学废料的公司对他人造成的危害要小得多。忽视防火安全法规的房主对人生命的危害当然要比在地铁逃票的人大得多。然而，最直接和最引人注目的违法行为恰恰就是最常见的一种社会现象。首当其冲者就是美国的司机们。今天，他们无法无天的行为给公众造成了极大的灾难。其危害既有日常多见的造成城市街道堵塞的并排违章停车，也有司机酒后开车造成的每年死亡大约25 000 人，伤残至少650 000 人。那么高速公路上的违章超速行驶呢？最新调查显示，在一些州际公路上83% 的司机现在根本无视联邦法定的每小时55 英里的时速限制。4 所有违章行为中最厚颜无耻的要数闯红灯了。在波士顿，人们对这种停止通行的信号的藐视已经到了这样的程度，以至在当地人中竟然流传着这种笑话：一名出租汽车司机居然坚持说，红灯信号仅仅起装饰作用。禁止通行的红灯控制交通的效力在各地都在削弱。在洛杉矶，闯红灯似乎已经成为最常见的违反交通法规的行为。在纽约，过十字路口就像俄国轮盘赌一样。警察局局长罗伯特 杰 麦克盖尔承认：“ 现在人们在红灯面前是否停下来是50% 对50% 的抛硬币的概率。” 同时，他自己属下的警察们也大都对这种违章行为熟视无睹。词汇（B部分）：55、92、116、159、180、286页，P55 B. Choose the correct answer. Only one answer is correct. 11.The story was so funny that we were all in _.A. excitementB. convulsionsC. emotionD. fixation12.Gluttony is just as much a _ as drunkenness.A. viceB. vicinityC. viciousnessD. vicissitude13.Each room is decorated with a lamp _ from the ceiling.A. droppedB. pulledC. suspendedD. fallen14.My first meeting with her often _ to my memory.A. fellsB. recallsC. refreshes D. recurs15.He writes like a(n) _: there are mistakes in every sentence.A. pupilB. illiterateC. teenagerD. school boy16.The goal is not yet _.A. to gainB. to sustainC. to restrainD. to attain17.It was reported that during the bombing, many people were killed or wounded by _ .A. flowB. blastC. currentD. stream18.She learnt to swim at once - she seemed totally without _ of the water.A. panicB. fearC. terror D. terribleness19. We raised a we must pay off it this year _. A. credit B. good sum C. loan D. mortgage 20. Some children complain that their parents at them all day. A. blame B. scold C. nag D. cryP92 , B. Choose the correct answer. Only one answer is correct. 11. The dark clouds suggest a(n) _ storm. A. impending B. surprising C. fast D. unexpected 12. Since the club owed $15 and had only $10 in the treasury, there was a _ of $5. A. sum B. deficit C. difference D. surplus13. The oil lamp _ softly on the table. A. glowed B. lighted C. sizzled D. sounded 14. It _ with you to decide. A. talks B. refers C. lies D. indicates15. He _ among the best heavyweight boxers of the past fifty years. A. projects B. shows C. displays D. rates 16. The constant turmoil in the office proved that he was an _ admini