2016职称英语原版.docx

whatBrandsThe word brand is a comprehensive term that encompasses other narrower terms. A brand is a name, term, symbol, and/or special design that is intended to identify the goods or services of one seller or group of sellers. A brand differentiates one sellers products from those of competitors. A brand name consists of words, letters, and/or numbers that can be vocalized. A brand mark is the part of the brand that appears in the form of a symbol, design, or distinctive coloring or lettering. It is recognized by sight but may not be expressed when a person pronounces the brand name.A trademark is a brand that is given legal protection because, under the law, it has been appropriated by one seller. Thus trademark is essentially a legal term. All trademarks are brands and thus include the words, letters, or numbers that can be pronounced. They may also include a pictorial design. Some people erroneously believe that the trademark is only the pictorial part of the brand.One major method of classifying brands is on the basis of who owns themproducers or middlemen. Sunbeam, Florsheim, Spalding (athletic products), and Sara Lee are producers brands, while Allstate, Shurfine, Sysco, Craftsman, and Penncrest are middlemens brands.The terms national and private have been used to describe producer and middleman brand ownership, respectively. However, marketing people prefer the producer middleman terminology. To say that the brand of poultry feed marketed in three states by a small Birmingham, Alabama, manufacturer is a national brand, whereas the brands of Penneys or Sears are private brands, stretches the meaning of the terms national and private.品牌品牌是一个综合性的术语，它包括其彳也范rt更小的术谱。一种品牌可以是一个名字、一个术 语、一个符号或是一个特殊的标志，用以区别不同卖主或卖主群体的货物或劳务。品牌可以把一 个卖主的商品同其他竞争者的商品区分弁来。一个品觯M名字由可以清晰读出的单词、字母及数 字组成。商标是品脾的一个组成部分，其群式为一个符号、一种图案、一秭与众不同的色彩或字 母书写。它可以从椀觉上确认，但在读品牌的名学时不一定能袅达出来。商标是受法律保护的品牌，因为依据法律，它已被卖主占有了。因此，商标实质上是一个法 律术语。所有的商标都是品牌，它也就包括可以被读出的单词、字母及数字。商标上也可能有图 案设计。有些人错误地认为，商标仅是品觯中的图案部分。 1品牌分类的一种主要方法s依据其所有人制迨商和中间商来划分。山比母、弗拉什姆、 斯巴尔丁（体育用品）和萨拉李等是制造商的品牌，而奥斯泰特、舒费因、赛斯克、克拉夫茨曼 和Pernicr鄉则是中间商的品牌。 国有和私有这两个术语分别用于描述制造商与中间商的品牌所有权。不过，销售人员更偏爱 生产者中间商这个术语。我们说阿拉巴马州伯明翰市一家小广生f的、在三个州都有出售的 家禽饲料为国有品牌，而Peimeys或Sears为軚有品牌，就把邊有和私有这两个术语的 意思引申了。Easy LearningStudents should be jealous. Not only do babies get to doze their days away， but theyve also mastered the fine art of learning in their sleep.By the time babies are a year old they can recognize a lot of sounds and even simple words. Marie Cheour at the University of Turku in Finland suspected that they might progress this fast because they learn language while they sleep as well as when they are awake.To test the theory， Cheour and her colleagues studied 45 newborn babies in the first few days of their lives. They exposed all the infants to an hour of Finnish vowel soundsone that sounds like “oo”， another like “ee” and a third boundary vowel peculiar to Finnish and similar languages that sounds like something in between. EEG recordings of the infants brains before and after the session showed that the newborns could not distinguish the sounds.Fifteen of the babies then went back with their mothers， while the rest were split into two sleep-study groups. One group was exposed throughout their night-time sleeping hours to the same three vowels， while the others listened to other， easier-to-distinguish vowel sounds.When tested in the morning， and again in the evening， the babies whod heard the tricky boundary vowel all night showed brainwave activity indicating that they could now recognise this new sound. They could identify the sound even when its pitch was changed， while none of the other babies could pick up the boundary vowel at all.Cheour doesnt know how babies accomplish this night-time learning， bunt she suspects that the special ability might indicate that unlike adults， babies dont “turn off” their cerebral cortex while they sleep. The skill probably fades in the course of the first year of life， she addsso forget the idea that you can pick up tricky French vowels as an adult just by slipping a language tape under your pillow. But while it may not help grown-ups， Cheour is hoping to use the sleeping hours to give remedial help to babies who are genetically at risk of language disorders.容易的学习学生们应该感到嫉妒。婴儿们不仅整天睡觉，而且他们还能在睡眠中掌握学习的艺术。 婴儿到了一周岁时，他们可以识别出很多音，甚至一些简单的单词。芬兰Turku大学的Marie Cheour怀疑他们进步这么快的原因可能是他们不仅在醒着时学语言，而且在睡觉时也在学语言。为了检验这个理论，Cheour和她的同事们在45个新生儿生命最初的几天里对他们进行了研 究。他们让所有的婴儿听一个小时的芬兰元音“一其中一个类似”00，“另一个类似”ee，还有 一个芬兰语和类似语言特有的边界音，听起来像两者之间的声音。在此之If和之后的婴儿大脑的 脑电图记录显示新生儿不能辨别这几个声音。然后，其中15个婴儿随他们的母亲回去了，而另外的婴儿被分成两个睡觉时学习小组。一个 组的婴儿夜间睡觉的时候还放着同样三个元音的录音，而其他的婴儿只听其他的较容易区分的 元音o；早晚各进行了测试之后，那些整晚都在听难识别的边界音的婴儿显示出的脑波活动说明他 们现在能够识别这个新声音了。甚至当这个音的音调变化时他们仍能够识别出来，而其的婴儿 没有一个能识别这个边界音的。Cheour不知道婴儿是如何完成这个夜间学习的，但是她怀疑这种特殊能力说明跟大人不一 样，婴儿睡觉时没有把大脑皮层“关掉”。她接着说，这种技能可能在生命的最初过程中渐渐消 失，因应忘掉这样一个想法，即你作为一个成年人只需要把一盘语言录音带塞在枕头下面就可 以学会法语中一些麻烦的音。伹是，虽然这并不能帮助成年人，Chedtir希望这些睡眠时间可用来 帮助那些从基因上来说会发生语言障碍的婴儿。What Is a Dream?For centuries, people have wondered about the strange things that they dream about. Some psychologists say that this nighttime activity of the mind has no special meaning. Others，however， think that dreams are an important part of our lives. In fact, many experts believe that dreams can tell us about a persons mind and emotions.Before modern times, many people thought that dreams contained messages from God. It was only in the twentieth century that people started to study dreams in a scientific way.The Austrian psychologist, Sigmund Freud1，was probably the first person to study dreams scientifically. In his famous book, The interpretation of Dreams (1900), Freud wrote that dreams are an expression of a persons wishes. He believed that dreams allow people to express the feelings, thoughts, and fears that they are afraid to express in real life.The Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung2 was once a student of Freuds. Jung，however，had a different idea about dreams. Jung believed that the purpose of a dream was to communicate a message to the dreamer. He thought people could learn more about themselves by thinking about their dreams. For example, people who dream about falling may learn that they have too high an opinion of themselves. On the other hand, people who dream about being heroes may learn that they think too little of themselves.Modern-day psychologists continue to develop theories about dreams. For example, psychologist William Domhoff from the University of California, Santa Cruz，believes that dreams are tightly linked to a persons daily life, thoughts, and behavior. A criminal, for example, might dream about crime.Domhoff believes that there is a connection between dreams and age. His research shows that children do not dream as much as adults. According to Domhoff, dreaming is a mental skill that needs time to develop.He has also found a link between dreams and gender. His studies show that the dreams of men and women are different. For example, the people in mens dreams are often other men, and the dreams often involve fighting. This is not true of womens dreams.3 Domhoff found this gender difference in the dreams of people from 11 cultures around the world, including both modern and traditional ones.Can dreams help us understand ourselves? Psychologists continue to try to answer this question in different ways. However, one thing they agree on this: If you dream that something terrible is going to occur, you shouldnt panic. The dream may have meaning, but it does not mean that some terrible event will actually take place. Its important to remember that the world of dreams is not the real world.梦是什么几百年来，人们都对他们梦到的奇异的事情感到疑惑。一些心理学家认为，这种大脑的夜间活动并没有特殊含义，另一些人则认为，梦是生命重要的一部分。实际上，许多专家认为，梦能揭示人的心理和情感活动。近代以前，很多人认为梦传递的是上帝的信息。直到20世纪，人们才开始从科学的角度研究梦。奥地利心理学家西格蒙德弗洛伊德或许是第一个用科学的方法研究梦的人。在他的著作 梦的解析(1900) 中，弗洛伊德写道，梦是一个人愿望的表达。他认为梦打开了一扇窗，让人们得以表达在生活中不敢表达的情感、思想和恐惧。瑞士精神病学家卡尔 荣格曾是弗洛伊德的学生，但他对梦的看法与弗洛伊德不同，他认为，梦的作用是给做梦的人传递一种信息，而人们通过自己的梦，可以对自己有一个更深刻的了解。比如，如果一个人梦到从高处坠落，那么他应该反思自己是不是自视过高。反过来，如果梦中自己成了英雄，应该想想平时可能太看低自己了。现代心理学家还在继续发展关于梦的理论，来自位于圣克鲁兹的加利福尼亚大学的威廉 多姆霍夫就是其中一位。他认为，梦境和一个人的日常生活、思想和行为都紧密相关，比方说，一个罪犯就可能梦到犯罪。多姆霍夫还认为，梦和年龄也有关系。他的研究表明，孩子不像成人那么多梦。他认为，做梦也是一项心理机能，也随着年龄增长而发展。多姆霍夫还发现梦和性别之间的关系。通过研究. 他发现男性和女性的梦境常常是不同的。例如，在男性梦境中出现的通常是其他男性，而且常与打斗有关，而女性的梦境则不是这样。多姆霍夫研究了全世界来自11种不同文化的古今案例，得出了上述结论。梦能帮助我们更好地了解自己吗?心理学家还在尝试通过不同方式来解答这个问题，不过，有一件事他们是意见一致的：如果你梦到有不好的事要发生，不要慌张。梦确实有含义，但也不意味着你梦到的事真的会发生。要记住，梦中的世界并不是真实的世界。How we form first impressionWe all have first impression of someone we just met. But why? Why do we form an opinion about someone without really knowing anything about him or her aside perhaps from a few remarks or readily observable traits? The answer is related to how your brain allows you to be aware of the world. Your brain is so sensitive in picking up facial traits, even very minor difference in a how a persons eyes, ears, nose, or mouth are placed in relation to each other make you see him or her as different. In fact, your brain continuously processes incoming sensory information the sights and sounds of your world. Theses incoming “signals” are compared against a host of “memories” stored in the brain areas called the cortex （大脑皮层）system to determine what these new signals “mean”. If you see someone you know and like at school, your brain says “familiar and safe”. “If you see someone new, it says, “newpotentially threatening”. Then your brain starts to match features of this stranger with other “known” memories. The height, weight, dress, ethnicity, gestures and tone of voice are all matched up. The more unfamiliar the characteristics, the more your brain may say, “This is new. I dont like this person.” Or else, “I am intrigued.” Or your brain may perceive a new face but familiar clothes, ethnicity, gestures like your other friends; so your brain says: “I like this person.” But theses preliminary “impressions” can be dead wrong. When we stereotype people, we use a less mature form of thinking 【not unlike the immature thinking of a very young child】 that makes simplistic and categorical impressions of others. Rather than learn about the depth and breadth of people their history, interest, values, strengths, and true character we categorize them as jocks, geeks, or freaks.。 However, if we resist initial stereotypical impressions, we have a chance to be aware of what a person is truly like. If we spend time with a person, hear about his or her life, hopes, dreams, and become aware of the persons character, we use a different, more mature style of thinkingand the most complex areas of our cortex, which allow us to be humane.我们是如何形成第一印象的对刚刚遇到的人我们都会有第一印象，为什么？除去一些描述或显而易见的特征，我们很可能对他们一无所知，那为什么我们他们形成主观的看法呢？这与你的大脑如何感知世界是息息相关的。大脑对面部特征十分敏感，即使是在眼睛、 耳朵或嘴部的位置的差异也会使大脑察觉到这个人是“不同的”。实际上，大脑一直在不断地对接收到的感官信息也就是影像和声音进行处理。大脑将这些“信号”与储存在脑皮层系统的大量“记忆” 相比较，以便确定这些新收到的信号的“意思”。如果你在学校看到某个你认识而且喜欢的人，你的大脑会做出“熟悉安全”的判断；如果你 看见了一个陌生的人，你的大脑会告诉你“陌生，有潜在的威胁”。紧接着你的大脑会开始将这 个陌生人的特征与“已知”的记忆进行比较。包括身高、体重、穿着、种族、手势以及音调等。 特征越不相符，大脑越会告诫你，“这是陌生人，我不喜欢这个人”，或“我很好奇”。大脑也可 能观察到一张新面孔，但却有着熟悉的穿着、种族特征和手势像你的朋友，这时大脑会告诉 你“我喜欢这个人”。但这些第一印象却可能是完全错误的。当区分人时，我们会用一种不成熟的思维方式（与小孩子的那些不成熟的想法没区别）去对别人做出 简单并且绝对性的判断。（这样的后果是）我们将人区分为蠢货、反常的人或怪人，而不是对人的 深度和广度，即历史、兴趣、价值、长处或真正的性格有所了解。但是，如果对刻板印象加以抑制，我们就会有机会对一个人有真正的了解。如果我 们花一些时间与一个人在一起，倾听他或她的生活、希望和梦想，了解了这个人的性格，我们才 会用一种不同的、更成熟的方式用脑皮层中最复杂的区域去思考。这会使我们更 富有人情味。How to Argue with Your BossBefore you argue with your boss, check with the bosss secretary to determine his mood. If he ate nails for breakfast, it is not a good idea to ask him for something. Even without the bosss secretary, they are keys to timing: dont approach the boss when hes on deadline; dont go in right before lunch, when he is apt to be distracted and rushed; dont go in just before or after he has taken a vacation.If youre mad, that will only make your boss mad. Calm down first. And dont let a particular concern open the floodgates for all your accumulated frustration. The boss will feel that you think negatively about the company and it is hopeless trying to change your mind. Then, maybe he will dismiss you.Terrible disputes can result when neither the employer nor the employee knows what is the problem the other wants to discuss. Sometimes the fight will go away when the issues are made clear. The employee has to get his point across clearly in order to make the boss understand itYour boss has enough on his mind without your adding more. If you cant put forward an immediate solution, at least suggest how to approach the problem. People who frequently present problems without solutions to their bosses may soon find they cant get past the secretary.To deal effectively with a boss, its important to consider his goals and pressures. If you can put yourself in the position of being a partner to the boss, then he will be naturally more inclined to work with you to achieve your goals.如何与你的老板争论在你与老板争论以前，先去老板秘书那里问一下老板的情绪，如果他情绪很糟，去向他提要求可不是一个好主意。即使没有老板的秘书，在选择时间方面也有窍门：别在老板赶期限时去找他别在午饭前去找他，因为这时他最易走神，匆忙行事别在他度假前后去找他。如果你快发疯了，只会使你的老板也气疯。先平静一下。别让某件特别的事情打开你积怨的闸门。老板会认为，你对公司持完全否定的态度，而且无法改变你的观点。接下来，你可能要被开除。当雇主和雇员双方都不明白对方要说什么时，会发生可怕的争执。有时问题弄清时，矛盾也就消除了。雇员必须清楚地传达他的观点，让老板明白,即使你不给老板添麻烦，他要考虑的事也已经够多的了。如果你无法提出直接的解决方案，至少要表明怎样对待此问题。那些经常给老板提问题，而不提出解决方案的人会发现他们连秘书那一关也过不了.要想和老板相处融洽，多考虑他的目标和压力非常重要。如果你能把自己摆在老板的合伙人的位置上，他自然会愿意与你合作，达到你的目的。Screen Test1. Every year millions of women are screened with X-rays to pick up signs of breast cancer. If this happens early enough, the disease can often be treated successfully. According to a, survey published last year, 21 countries have screening programmes. Nine of them, including Australia, Canada, the US and Spain, screen women under 50.2. But the medical benefits of screening these younger women are controversial, partly because the radiation brings a small risk of inducing cancer. Also, younger women must be given higher doses of X-rays because their breast tissue is denser.3. Researchers at the Polytechnic University1 of Valencia analysed the effect of screening more than 160, 000 women at 11 local clinics. After estimating the womens cumulative dose of radiation, they used two models to calculate the number of extra cancers this would cause.4. The mathematical model recommended by Britains National Radiological Protection Board (NRPB)predicted that the screening programme would cause 36 cancers per 100,000 women, 18 of them fatal. The model preferred by the UN Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation led to a lower figure of 20 cancers.5. The researchers argue that the level of radiation-induced cancers is “not very significant” compared to the far larger number of cancers that are discovered and treated. The Valencia programme, they say, detects between 300 and 450 cases of breast cancer in every 100,000 women screened.6. But they point out that the risk of women contracting cancer from radiation could be reduced by between 40 and 80 percent if screening began at 50 instead of 45, because they would be exposed to less radiation. The results of their study, they suggest, could help “optimise the technique” for breast cancer screening.7. “There is a trade-off between the diagnostic benefits of breast screening and its risks,” admits Michael Clark of the NRPB. But he warns that the study should be interpreted with caution. “On the basis of the current data, for every 10 cancers successfully detected and prevented there is a risk of causing one later in life. Thats why radiation exposure should be minimised in any screening programme.”透视检查每年上百万的女性都做X射线透视，检查是否有乳腺癌迹象。如果检查得足够早，疾病就可 以被成功地治疗。根据去年公布的一项调查，21个国家有透视计划。其中9个国家，包括澳大利 亚、加拿大、美国和西班牙为50岁以下女性进行透视。但是，用X射线检查年轻女性，就医学上的好处而论，是有争议的，部分原因是辐射有诱发 癌症的小小的危险。另外，年轻女人乳房组织紧密，给予的X射线的剂量要多一些。Valencia理工大学的研究人员分析了 11个社区诊所用X射线检查16万以上女性的结果。估 测了女性的辐射累积剂量之后，他们用两种模型计算由此导致额外癌症数量。英国国家辐射保护委员会推荐的数学模型预言，透视计划会导致每10万个女性中有36人患 上癌症，18人致死。联合国原子辐射影响科学委员会首选的模型得出了一个较低的数字20人 患上癌症。研究人员争辩说，与发现后接受治疗的癌症数字相比，由辐射诱发癌症的数字是很小的。他 们说，Valencia计划在每10万接受透视的妇女中发现300到450个乳腺癌病例。但是他们指出如果X射线检查从50岁而不是45岁时开始，会使妇女由于辐射而患癌的危险 减少40%到80% ,因为她们可以接受更少的辐射。他们暗示说，他们研究的结果有助于使乳腺癌 透视的技术更加完善。英国国家辐射保护委员会的Michael Clark承认“在胸透的诊断益处和危险之间有一个平衡”。 但是他警告说应该谨慎地解释此项研究。“基于目前的数据，每成功地发现10例癌症就有可能导 致今后出现一例癌症。这就是为什么在所有的透视计划中，辐射应该减少到最小的原因。Transport and Trade Transport is one of the aids to trade. By moving goods from places where they are plentiful to places where they are scarce， transport adds to their value. The more easily goods can be brought over the distance that separates producer and consumer， the better for trade. When there were no railways， no good roads， no canals， and only small sailing ships， trade was on a small scale. The great advances made in transport during the last two hundred years were accompanied by a big increase in trade. Bigger and faster ships enabled a trade in meat to develop between Britain and New Zealand， for instance. Quicker transport makes possible mass-production and big business， drawing supplies from， and selling goods to， all parts of the globe. Big factories could not exist without transport to carry the large number of workers they need to and from their homes. Big city stores could not have developed unless customers could travel easily from the suburbs and goods delivered to their homes. Big cities could not survive unless food could be brought from a distance. Transport also prevents waste. Much of the fish landed at the ports would be wasted if it could not be taken quickly to inland towns. Transport has given us a much greater variety of foods and goods since we no longer have to live on what is produced locally. Foods which at one time could be obtained only during a part of the year can now be obtained all through the year. Transport has raised the standard of living. By moving fuel， raw materials， and even power， as， for example， through electric cables， transport has led to the establi