第十章 产品定价.doc

第十章 产品定价：定价考虑因素和方法 价格可以狭义地定义为产品和服务收取的费用，或者广义地说是顾客拥有和使用产品和服务的利益的交换价值。尽管现代市场营销的进程中，非价格因素的作用越来越大，价格在市场营销组合策略中，仍然是一个非常重要的因素。尽管如此，许多公司并不擅长处理定价，定价决策和价格竞争是许多市场营销执行官的主要问题。定价问题的出现经常是因为太过于成本取向，而不能频繁调整以充分反映市场变化，与市场营销组合的其他部分不一致，或者不能因产品差异化、细分市场和购买情况而调价。1、确认并定义影响公司定价决策的内部因素 许多内部因素影响公司定价决策，包括公司的市场营销目标、市场营销组合策略、成本组织考虑。定价策略主要由公司的目标市场和定价目标决定，定价决策和产品设计、分销和促销决策相互影响。因此，设计营销计划时，定价策略必须和其他市场营销组合变量相协调。2、确认并定义影响定价决策的外部因素，包括顾客感知价格和价值的影响影响定价决策的外部因素包括市场和需求的性质、竞争者的价格和产品以及经济状况、中间商需求和政府行为等因素。销售者的定价自由度随不同的市场而变化，在垄断竞争和寡头市场中，定价尤其具有挑战性。最后，由顾客来决定公司的定价是否合适，顾客衡量价格和使用产品的感知价值，如果价格超过了价值量，顾客不会买产品。需求越没有弹性，公司越可以定高价。因此，需求和顾客感知价值规定了价格的上限。根据不同的产品特点，顾客认定产品的不同价值，商家经常根据不同的价格细分市场确定不同的价格。衡量市场和需求时，公司估计需求曲线，测算一定时期内不同价格水平不可能的购买数量。顾客还把产品的价格和竞争者的产品价格相比较，因此，公司必须了解竞争对手产品的价格和质量，并把它作为自己定价的起点。3、比较定价的三种一般方法公司可以选择一种方法，或者结合使用三种方法：基于成本定价法（成本加成定价法、盈亏平衡分析和目标利润定价法），基于价值定价法和基于竞争定价法。基于成本定价法根据销售者的成本结构定价，而基于竞争者的价格定价；封标定价法迫使公司根据他们认为的竞争报价定价。 关键概念和原则在市场营销组合中，价格是惟一直接产生收入的因素，其他因素都代表成本。价格也是市场营销组合策略中最富有弹性的因素，也是许多公司主管面对的头号问题。公司的定价决策会受公司内部因素和外部环境因素的影响。内部因素包括公司的市场营销目标，市场营销组合策略、成本和组织情况等。 公司目标越清楚，定价工作越简单。常见的目标是企业生存最大利润、市场份额领先和产品质量领先。价格必须与产品设计、分销和促销协调一致，形成一致有效的市场管理计划。公司常常根据价格为产品定位，然后确定其他市场营销组合策略，这时，价格是产品市场定位的主要因素，确定产品市场、竞争和设计。一些公司不强调价格，而使用其他市场营销组合策略形成一种非价格定位。成本给出了公司对产品定价的下限。公司的成本有两种形式：固定成本和变动成本。为了明智地定价，管理部门需要了解不同生产水平下的成本情况。一些公司围绕经验曲线制定了成功的策略。 管理部门必须决定组织内部由谁来决定价格，公司定价的方式有多种。影响定价的外部因素包括市场与需求、竞争以及其他环境因素。市场和需求决定了价格的上限。不同市场决定销售者定价的自由程度。在完全竞争条件下，没有一个购买者或销售者能对当时的市场价格有所影响。在垄断竞争条件下，市场价格的不同与销售者产品和服务的差别有关。在寡头垄断竞争中，销售者对其他公司的定价和营销策略十分敏感。在完全垄断市场，不同情况下，定价也有所不同。消费者会衡量产品的价格是否合适。公司常常发现很难测量顾客感知到的市场价值。 多数公司通过估计不同价格下的需求量，估计需求曲线。在测量价格-需求关系时，市场研究人员必须防止其他因素影响需求。市场研究人员需要了解价格弹性。影响公司定价决策的另一个外部因素就是竞争者的成本和价格，以及竞争者对公司定价策略的反应。公司定价时考察几种方法：基于成本的定价方法（成本加成定价法、盈亏平衡分析、目标利润定价法），基于需求的定价法（价值基础定价法）以及基于竞争的定价法（行市定价法和封标定价法）。最简单的定价法是成本加成定价法。目标利润定价法需要使用盈亏平衡分析图。制造商应该考虑不同的价格，并估计各种价格下盈亏平衡时的产量、可能的需求量和利润。基于价值定价法不把销售的成本作为主要因素，而是根据购买者感知的价值来定价。公司使用基于价值定价法，必须弄清购买者对不同的竞争产品和服务所确认的价值，而衡量感知价值是很困难的。越来越多的商家采取价值定价策略，以合适的价格提供合适的质量和良好服务。零售业一个重要的价值定价形式是日常低价。使用行市定价法，公司主要根据竞争者的价格定价，不太注意自身成本或者需求。行市定价法很流行。基于竞争的定价方法也应用于公司投票竞争项目。CHAPTER 10PRICING PRODUCTS: PRICING CONSIDERATIONS AND APPROACHESSummaryIn the narrowest sense, price is the amount of money charged for a product or service. However, this meaning has been broadened. Today, despite the increased role of nonprice factors in the modern marketing process, price remains an important element in the marketing mix. Many internal and external factors influence the companys pricing decision. Internal factors include the firms marketing objectives, marketing mix strategy, costs, and organization for pricing. External factors that influencepricing decisions include the nature of market and demand, competitors costs, prices, and offers, and other environmental factors like the economy, reseller needs, and government actions. In the end, the consumer decides whether the company has set the right price.The consumer weighs the price against the perceived value of using the product. If the price exceeds the sum of the value, consumers will not buy the product. Consumers differ in the values they assign to different product features and marketers often vary their pricing strategies for different price segments. As described in the chapter, the company can select one or a combination of three general pricing approaches: cost-based, value-based, and/or competition-based.Keywords and principleAll profit and nonprofit organizations must set prices on their products and services. Price goes by many names. Price is the amount of money charged for a product or service or the sum of the values that consumers exchange for the benefits of having or using the product or service.It should be remembered that price is the only element in the marketing mix that produces revenue; all other elements represent costs. Price is also one of the most flexible of elements of the marketing mix.The first area to be considered is the internal factors. Internal factors that affect pricing decisions include the following:Marketing objectives. The first decision to be made by the company is to set overall strategy. Setting objectives (beyond marketing positioning) should be carefully monitored. Some common objectives include the following: survival , current profit maximization, market-share leadership ,product-quality leadership. And Other specific objectives.One product might be priced to help the sales of another product. Nonprofit and public organizations may adopt a number of other pricing objectives.Marketing mix strategy. Price is only one of the marketing mix tools that a company uses to achieve its marketing objectives.Companies often make their pricing decisions first and then base other marketing-mix decisions on the prices that they want to charge.Other companies de-emphasize price and use other marketing-mix tools to create nonprice positions. The best strategy is not to charge the lowest price, but rather to differentiate the marketing offer to make it worth a higher price.Remember that consumers rarely buy on price alone. Instead, they seek products that give them the best value in terms of benefits received for the price paid.Costs. Costs are another internal factor that set the floor for the price that the company can charge. Costs can take two forms: Fixed costs, Variable costs .To price wisely, management needs to know how its costs vary with levels of production. Costs as a function of production experience. Risks are present with this strategy:Organizational considerations. Management must decide within the organization who should set prices.Three primary considerations affect the pricing decision externally. They are: The market and demand. The market and demand set the upper limit. Pricing freedom varies with different types of markets:Pure competition: No single buyer or seller has much effect on the going market price. Sellers in this type of market do not spend much time constructing strategy.Monopolistic competition: Sellers try to develop differentiated offers.Oligopolistic competition: there are a few sellers who are highly sensitive to each others pricing and marketing strategies. In this market, the seller is never sure that advantage can be gained by cutting prices over the long-term.A pure monopoly: Monopolists do not always charge a full price because: They do not want to attract competition. They want to penetrate the market faster. They fear government regulation.Pricing freedom also varies with consumers perceptions of price and value.Another factor to determine is the price-demand relationship. Most companies try to measure their demand curves since the type of market makes a difference. In measuring the price-demand relationship, the market researcher must not allow other factors affecting demand to vary.price elasticity of demand will influence the price-demand relationship. Price elasticity is a measure of the sensitivity (responsiveness) of demand to changes in price. If demand is elastic rather than inelastic, sellers will consider lowering their price.Other external factors are based on pricing from the competitors. The company needs to learn the price and quality of each competitors offer and possible competitors reaction to the firms pricing moves.Other external factors include: Economic conditions. Resellers policies (reactions), government, Social concerns.The price a company charges needs to be somewhere between being too low to produce a profit and too high to produce any demand. Companies set prices by selecting a general pricing approach that includes one or more of three sets of factors.Cost-based pricing approaches include the following: Cost-plus pricing is the simplest pricing method. It remains popular .Break-even pricing (target profit pricing) uses a break-even chart that shows the total cost and total revenue at different levels of sales volume.they do not take the price-demand relationship into account. When using this method, the company must also consider the impact of price on the sales volume needed to realize target profits and the likelihood that the needed volume will be achieved at each possible price.An increasing number of companies are basing their pricing on the products perceived value. Value-based pricing is setting prices based on buyers perceptions of value rather than on the sellers cost. A company using this approach must find out what value the buyer assigns to different competitive offers. Pricing in this manner seems to be an increasing trend. Value pricing strategies are generated (offering just the right combination of quality and