英语语言学重点知识.doc

语言教学设计Lecture 1 Language and LearningUnit 1 Language and LearningMain concerns:n Views on languagen Views on language learningn What is a good language teacher, and how can one become such? 1.1 How do we learn language? Task 1 on pp. 1-2n How many foreign languages can you speak? n Did you find learning a foreign language easy? n What difficulties did you experience? Why? n Which skill did you find more difficult to learn? n Did you focus on knowledge or skills? Why? n Why did you learn the foreign language(s)? n Did you find it interesting to learn the foreign language(s)? n What were your most common learning activities? n Did you like the way you learned the foreign language(s)? Conclusions of the task n People learn a foreign language for different reasons;n People learn languages in different ways;n People have different understandings about language learning; andn People have different capabilities in language learning. 1.2 Views on language The answer to the question What is language? is the basis for:syllabus design, teaching methods, teaching procedures, and teaching techniques .A definition of language is always, implicitly or explicitly, a definition of human beings in the world. Raymond WilliamsLanguage is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotion and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. Edward Sapirn A set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. Noam ChomskyThe institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each otherby means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols. R.A. Halln David Crystal: The systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs, or written symbols in a human society for communication and self-expression. Task 2 (p. 2)What is language? Sample definitions of “language” (p. 177)Language:n is a system/set of symbols;n is (primarily) vocal;n is arbitrary and conventional;n consists of a set of rules (and is rule-governed);n is related to culture;n is used for human communication or interaction.It can be defined in three ways :n it is a finite system of sound units which are combined according to a certain order (a syntax) in order to form an infinite amount of information; it is an arbitrary system of symbols; a word is arbitrarily linked to an object ;it is a system that lets us express current events as well as real and imaginary ones be they in the past, present or futureThree different viewsof language n The structural view, n The functional view, n The interactional view The structural view The structural view sees language as a linguistic system.The system of language =the system of sounds + the system of words + the system of grammar The structural view SystemofLanguage3 sub-systemsThe structural viewThe structural viewThe functional view (The functional-notional view) The functional view sees language as a linguistic system and as a means for doing things. Functions of languagee.g.n offering, n suggestion, n advising, n apologizing, n etc. To perform functions, rules and vocabulary are needed to express notions. Notions e.g.n present time, past time, and future time; n certainty and possibility; n agent and instrument; n relationship between people and objects The interactional viewThe interactional view sees language as a communicative tool (to build up and maintain relations between people). Two things are needed for communication:n Rules of language form (grammar & vocabulary) n Rules of language use in a context (Is it appropriate to use this language item in this context?) Views on the nature of language have an impact on the teaching/learning method of a person. 1.3 Views on language learning Views on language learning involve two questions:n What are the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes of language learning?n What are the conditions for the learning processes to be activated? n The Process-oriented theories and n The Condition-oriented theoriesThe Process-oriented theoriesThe Process-oriented theories concern how the mind processes new information. e.g. n habit formation, n induction, n making inference, n hypothesis testing, n generalizationThe Condition-oriented theoriesThe Condition-oriented theories concern the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place.e.g.n number of students, n what kind of input learners receive, n learning atmosphereThe Behaviourist theory andThe Cognitive theory The Behaviourist theoryn Watson an Raynor: a stimulus-response theory of psychologyThe Behaviourist theoryAccording to the theory:Forms of bebaviour such as motions, habits, etc. are seen as elements that can be observed and measured. The Behaviourist theoryn “You can train an animal to do anything (within reason) if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, stimulus, response, and reinforcement.” (Harmer. 1983:30) The Behaviourist theoryThe Behaviourist theoryn Skinner: Language is also a form of behaviour. n USA: The Audio-Lingual Method (the “listen-and-repeat” drilling activities). Mistakes were immediately corrected. The Cognitive theoryChomskys question:If all language is a learned behaviour, how can a child produce a sentence that has never been said by others before? e.g.五岁女孩：“中国队加油！外国队漏油！”(2005.05.05晚上9:30)The impact of Chomskys theory on language teaching One influential idea is that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules. This idea is clearly in opposition to the Audio-Lingual Method.1.4 What is a good language teacher?kind, dynamic, authoritative, speaking clearly, creative, patient, well-informed, hardworking, resourceful (having the ability to find a way round the difficulty), attentive, warm-hearted well-prepared, flexible, intuitive, accurate, enthusiastic, humourous, caring, disciplined, professionally-trained (Parrot. 1993)1.5 How can one become a good language teacher? Teaching: is it a craft, or is it an applied science? n If we take teaching as a craft, then we would believe that a novice teacher can learn the profession by imitating the experts techniques, just like an apprentice.n If we take teaching as an applied science, then we would believe that knowledge and experimentation are necessary. A compromise between the two views by Wallace (1991) n Stage 1: Language trainingn Stage 2: 3 sub-stages: 1) learning; 2) practice; 3) reflectionn Stage 3: Goal (professional competence) n What does the double arrow between Stage 1 and Stage 2 mean?n In which stage does this course take place? n Why are Practice and Reflection connected by a circle? Summary of Unit 1n Views on languagen The structural view, the functional view, and the interactional viewn Views on language learningn The Process-oriented theories and the Condition-oriented theoriesn The Behaviourist theory and the Cognitive theoryn Qualities of a good language teacher n Ethic devotion, professional quality, and personal stylen The three stages of becoming a good language teacherEnd of Unit 1Thank you!Communicative Principles and ActivitiesCommunicative Language Teaching (CLT) Framework of this lecture: Language use in real life v.s. traditional pedagogy; Communicative competence; The implementation of language skills; Communicative activities. 2.1 Language use in real life vs. traditional pedagogyn The ultimate goal of foreign language teaching is:to enable the learners to use the foreign language in work or lifen Therefore, we should teach: that part of the language that will be used; in the way that is used in the real world. Gaps between the use of language in real life and the traditional foreign language teaching pedagogy: (pp. 14-15) n In real life: ?n The traditional pedagogy: ?n The consequence: ? n Task 1.n In real life: Language is used to perform certain communicative functions. n The traditional pedagogy: focuses on forms rather than on functions.n The consequence: The learners have learned a lot of sentences or patterns, but they are unable to use them appropriately in real social situations. n In real life: We use all skills, including the receptive skills and the productive skills. n The traditional pedagogy tends to focus on one or two language skills and ignore the others. n The consequence: The learners cannot use the language in an integrated way. n In real life: Language is always used in a certain context. n The traditional pedagogy tends to isolate language from its context. e.g. the passive n The consequence:The students are puzzled about how to use the language in a particular context. 2.2 Fostering communicative competenceThe goal of CLT is to develop students communicative competence.Communicative Competence vs. Linguistic Competencen Linguistic Competence = grammatical knowledge orknowledge about the language form n Communicative Competence =Knowledge & ability for:rules of form/grammar + rules of use Language competence and communicative competence a. Chomskys theory: competence simply means knowledge of the language system: grammatical knowledge in other words b. Hymess theory: “there are “rules of use without which the rules of grammar would be useless”. Besides grammatical rules, language use is governed by rules of use, which ensure that the desired or intended functions are performed and the language used is appropriate to the context. According to Hymes (1979), communicative competence includes four aspects: (pp. 15-16)n knowing whether or not something is formally possible (grammaticality: grammatically acceptable); 知道形式上是否可能 n knowing whether something is understandable to human beings (feasibility);知道是否可行 n knowing whether something is in line with social norms (appropriateness in a social context);知道是否得体 n knowing whether or not something is in fact done (what the language performance entails).知道实施的条件 To sum upn communicative competence included four aspects: grammatically acceptable understandable social norms actually useCommunicative Competence includes knowledge/awareness of: n when to sayn where to sayn to whom to sayn what to sayn how to sayFeatures of CLT (p. 16)n CLT stresses the need to allow students opportunities for authentic and creative use of the language;n CLT focuses on meaning rather than on form;n CLT suggests that learning should be relevant to the needs of the students;n CLT advocates task-based language teaching (TBLT);n CLT emphasizes a functional approach to language learning and culture awareness of the target language. 1. authentic and creative 2. meaning rather than form3. relevant to the needs4. task-based teaching5. functional approachRichards and Rodgers (1986:72) three principles of CLT (p. 16) n Communicative principle;n Task principle;n Meaningfulness principle 2.3 The implementation of language skillsThe translation of communicative competence in language teaching practice is to develop the learners skills, namely, listening, speaking, reading and writing. In listening and speaking Students should have the chance to listen to and produce what is meaningful, authentic, unpredictable, and reactive if ever possible.n In traditional pedagogy, listening and speaking were treated as skills different from what takes place in reality. n Therefore, listening and speaking skills need to be redefined in terms of the real communicative use. n Students should have the chance to listen to and produce what is meaningful, authentic, unpredictable, and creative if ever possible.In readingn Since communicative courses focus on meaning rather than on form, the reading skill is redefined to focus on the purpose of reading.n Traditionally the purpose of reading is to learn language, namely vocabulary, grammar, etc., and reading is regarded as a process of decoding, structural analysis, etc. n In CLT, reading is to extract the meaning or the messages, and the students use different skills, e.g. skimming and scanning (see Unit 10), for different reading purposes. In writingn students should make the writing more meaningful and authentic, that is to practice writing to express their own feelings or describe their own experience.n In CLT, students have the chance to write to express their own feelings or describe their own experiences, thus making the practice of writing meaningful and authentic.In short, CLT has expanded the area: Language content (to incorporate functions); Learning process (cognitive style and information processing); and Product (language skills). 2.4 Communicative activities Littlewood (1981): Functional communicative activities; Social interactional activities. Littlewood. 1981.Communicative Language Teaching.Cambridge University Press.Functional communicative activities (p. 18)e.g. Identifying pictures language for the activity: n What colour ?n How many ?n Where ? Social interactional activities (pp. 18-19) e.g. Role-playing through cued dialogues n Reading and writing are also communicative skills which are worth no less attention than listening and speaking. Rod Ellis (1990) six criteria for communicative activities Communicative purpose; (information gap) Communicative desire; (real need) (Focus on ) Content, not form; (message) Variety of language; (not just one language form, free to improvise/create) No teacher intervention; (done by Ss; no correcting/evaluating how Ss do it; assessment is based on the product or on communicative purpose rather than on the language.) No material control. For examples please refer to Wang Qiangs book (2000) pp. 20-23Summary of CLTn Gaps between the use of language in real life and the traditional foreign language teaching pedagogy;n Goal of CTL: Communicative competence; n Features of CLT, and Richards and Rodgers three principles of CLT: u communicative, task and meaningfulness principlesn Communicative activities (Littlewood): u functional communicative activities, and u social interactional activitiesn Rod Ellis six criteria for communicative activities End of CLTThank you!Goal: Exchanging personal informationInput: Questionnaire on sleeping habitsActivity: 1) Reading questionnaire 2) Asking and answering questions about sleeping habitsTeacher role: Monitor and facilitator to specify what is regarded as successful completion of the taskLearner role: Conversational partnerSetting: Classroom / pair work The components of a task： 目标 （Goals） 信息输入（ Input Data) 语言信息（ Verbal data）非语言信息（Non-verbal data ） 活动 （Activities） 结果 （Outcome) 语言结果（ Verbal outcome） 非语言结果（Non-verbal outcome ）Task or exercises? The learner will listen to an aural text of weather forecast and answer questions afterwards on whether given statements are true or false. The learner will listen to a weather forecast, identify the predicted maximum temperature for the day and give suggestions as to what to wear. Exercise Task Focus on Form MeaningAuthentic situationNot having Having Assessment meansIn terms of language structureIn terms of completion outcomeLanguage controllingStrictly controlled FreelyCorrectionCorrected immediatelyObserved, then correctedGood learning tasks should:1 enable learners to manipulate and practice specific features of language2 allow learners to rehearse, in class, communicative skills they will need in the real world3 activate psychological/psycholinguistic processes of learning4 be suitable for mixed ability groups5 involve learners in solving a problem, coming to a conclusion6 be based on authentic or naturalistic source material7 involve learners in sharing information8 require the use of more than one macro-skill9 allow learners to think and talk about language and learning10 promote skills in learning how to learn11 have clear objectives stating what learners will be able to do as a result of taking part in the task12 utilize the community as a resource 13 give learners a choice in what way they do and the order in which they do it.14 involve learners in risk-taking15 require learners to rehearse, rewrite and polish initial efforts16 enable learners to share in the planning and development of the task17 have built into them a means of evaluating the success or otherwise of the task Besides CLT, there has been another language teaching approach which has become more and more popular from late 1980s, that is, Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT). Task-Based Language Teaching Task-Based Language Teaching What is task? What is Task-Based Language Teaching? Task features Task design: examples and principles TBLT class management 6. Examples of TBLT Three pedagogical goals for TBLT Merits and demerits of TBLT1.What is task1.1 A task is a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. In other words, task means the what people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between. (Long, 1985: 89; via Nunan, 1989:5) 1.2 A task is