Lecture 4第二周.doc

Lecture 4（第2周） Semantic and Fuzziness.LectureFourSemanticBoundary,AmbiguityandFuzzinessWhatwordsarefuzzy?Lock(16321704):Classification2properties:primarypropertyandsecondaryproperty:Primaryproperty:extension（广延）、mass（体积）、shape（形状）、density（密度）和movement（运动）andsoonaremoreobjectiveandtherefore=Primary=clear=boundedSecondaryproperty:color（颜色）、sound（声音）、smell（气味）andsoonaremoresubjective,thus=Secondary=fuzzy=unboundedExamplesandIllustrationsPrimaryproperties:Square,round,triangle,rectangular平行四边形,圆柱体,圆锥体donotdependonoursensestobesoandaremoreobjective.Therefore,Wecantelltheirdifferencesandtheyareneverfuzzy.Secondaryproperties:red,blue,white,black,beautiful,ugly,loud,softappealtohumansensessightsmellhearingandsoonforprecisenessandaremoresubjective,thereforeoftenfuzzyBigorsmall,farornear:ThisisabigmouseThisisasmallelephantTheystandneareachother./MyhomeisnearKoreaJourneytoBeijing/atriptothemoonMoreExamplesandExceptions山欲高，画出之则不高，烟霞锁其腰则高矣。（郭熙林泉高致）山欲高，白云绕其腰；水欲长，群山掩其源。咸与苦：尔雅释言：“咸，苦也”。又有“苦即大咸”。郝懿行：“苦味近辛”（“辛”的意思是辣，所以“辣”字从辛）故言辛苦咸极必苦故淮南子地形训：炼苦生咸”Exceptions然而，大、小、高、矮等属于第一性的概念同样是模糊的。1米5的姑娘觉得1米7的男青年个头高，1米7的姑娘觉得矮；1米7的男性和1米7的女性相比，显得矮，身高接近2米的篮球队员到了NBA也仅仅是个中等个头。square/roundface:notprecisebutfuzzyPhonetic&PhonemicFuzzinessPhoneticSimilarity:Aprinciplefortheclassificationofphonemes:classifiedintoonephoneme/n,r,l/canbeclassifiedasonephonemeinsomeoftheprovincesinSouthChinaEvenwhenspeakingstandardChinese,thereareindividualvariationsinthewaywepronounceawordorasound.AmericanEnglishisarticulatedinperceivablydistinctiveaccentfromBritishEnglish,buttheycanmakethemselvesunderstoodbyspeakingdifferently.Equally,wespeakStandardChinesewithourownlocalaccent,wegetourmeaningsacrosswithlittledifficulty.Phonetic&PhonemicFuzzinessThankyou=3Q四指伸直=four;四指弯曲=wonderful.Why?斑竹=版主；粉丝=fans玉米=宇迷=超女李宇春之迷者凉粉=张靓颖之粉丝（fans的谐音）（参见徐盛桓2006：1824）。syntheticlanguageandanalyticlanguage:English(synthetic)andChinese(analytic)Standardandregionaldialects:冯奇/红旗Theboundaryisfuzzy2.3SyntacticFuzziness:OldmenandwomenTheyareflyingplanesVisitingauntscanbeboring要死猎人的狗中国队大胜美国队/中国队大败美国队2.3SyntacticFuzziness:TenseThepresenttense:HistoricalpresentStrictlyspeaking,begoingtoisapresenttense+progressiveaspect,butthemeaningisfuturetense2.3SyntacticFuzziness:抗震救灾、救死扶伤救火在家养病逃命、逃生恢复疲劳盖被子打扫卫生晒太阳很中国非常可乐、非常女人太小儿科了未婚夫、未婚妻又当爹，又当妈不要太潇洒住谁？住我！FuzzinessRelatedtoLogicalMattersand&or:合取与析取关系Johndoesnotsmokeordrink.Ihavenotimeorenergy.Howtoparaphrase:deepstructure?JohndoesnotsmokeandJohndoesnotdrinkIhavenotimeandIhavenoenergy.Chomsky:AspectsoftheSyntaxAll(none)oftheblue,green,red,and(or)yellowpennantsMarkednessandUnmarkednessOppositionbetweenmarkednessandunmarkedness:Howwideistheroad?Not:hownarrow?Thehighwayistwometerswide.Not:twometersnarrowSimilaradjectives:heavy/light,deep/shallow,big/small,old/young,far/near,long/short,many/few,good/badMarkednessandUnmarkednessNotallpairsofadjectivescanformmarkednessandunmarkednessoppositions:pretty/ugly:“Howprettyisshe?”presupposesthatsheispretty,notugly.Similarexamples:fat/thin,busy/free,sweet/odorous,great/little,clever/stupid,clean/dirty,noble/humble,strong/weak,simple/complex,true/false,brave/timidSenseofPerceptionConsiderthefollowing:WhatabigmouseItsasmallelephant100yuan=ahighpriceorlowprice?500yuan=ahighpriceorlowprice?Businessmenpurchasesecond-handfurnitureata“highprice”of100buttheyclaimtosellitata“lowprice”of500.Themeaningofhighandlowisfuzzy.Synaesthesia（通感）尖andsharp:senseoftouchButwecansay:尖（叫）声、眼尖、耳尖sharpeyes/ears/tongue/voice瞎说观音菩萨/观世音菩萨SenseofPerception闻:InmodernChinese=smell孔子家语：“如入芝兰之室，久而不闻其香。”ButinancientChinese=hear:听而不闻、闻所未闻、百闻不如一见、早有耳闻、闻讯赶来、闻名、旧闻、新闻、久闻大名鲁迅阿长与山海经：“推她呢，不动；叫她呢，也不闻。”味：从口：说文解字：味：滋味但：从味觉引申到嗅觉：气味、香味、臭味English:flavor:smelltasteSynaesthesia（通感）andfuzziness钱钟书：“寻常官能，时复互用，心理学命曰通感。”日常生活语言：“声音尖”、“嗓子脆”、“声音圆润”文学语言：“声音不但会有气味哀响馥、鸟声香，而且会有颜色、光亮红声、笑语绿、鸡声白、鸟话红、声皆绿、鼓（声）暗。香不但能闹，而且能劲。流云学声，绿阴生静。花色和竹声都可以有温度：热、欲燃、焦。鸟语有时快利如剪，有时圆润如丸。五官感觉真算得有无相通、彼此相生了。”SynaesthesiaandfuzzinessHarshaharshtexture(senseoftouch)aharshvoice(senseofhearing)aharshlight/color(senseofsight)aharshfood(senseoftaste)aharshodor(senseofsmell)Infactharshisusedasasupernym,ageneralword(perception)thatcoversthedomainsofdescriptivewords.上位概念词PartIIICognitiveLinguistics3.1Categoryandfuzzinessgrammaticalcategory语类noun,verb,fuzzyboundariesbetweengrammaticalcategories:非常女人，做女人挺好的gomyway,semanticcategoryfishandman,drinkandeatfuzzyboundariesbetweensemanticcategories喝西北风Heisabigfish.Categorization&Conceptualizationcategorization:proposedasanothertermincontrastwithcategory:category:staticproperty(defineboundaries)categorization:dynamicprocess(transcendboundaries)Conceptualization,categorizationandcategory:ConceptualizationisapsychologicalphenomenonCategorizationisaparole-languephenomenonCategoryisalinguisticphenomenonCategorizationisaresultofconceptualizationCategoryisaresultofcategorizationBoundary,Fuzziness,Prototype&Margins“Whatkindofbirdareyou,ifyoucannotfly”,saidthelittlebirdtotheduck.“Whatkindofbirdareyou,ifyoucannotswim”,saidtheduckanddived.(Prokofir,PeterundderWolf)thelittlebirdobservesthattheduckcannotflytheducksimilarlyobservesthatthelittlebird(asparroworablackbirdforinstance)cannotswimtheystillcalleachotherbird.birds:seemtosharethesamefeaturessuchasanimalfeatherswingslayingeggs&ponentialanalysis:notideallyapplicableforthecategorizationofnaturalkindssinceitallowsfuzzyboundariesinthecategorizationoftheentityitaimstorepresent.Boundary,Fuzziness,Prototype&MarginsDie:transitiveorintransitive?Hediedahero/diedagloriousdeath.他死了父亲。买：买米打米/打酱油=打电话/打车（买？）买FuzzinessandMetaphorAristotle(Poetics:XXI,1457b):“givingthethinganamebelongingtosomethingelse,thetransferencebeingonthegroundsofanalogy”Quintilian(VIII,VI,1):“Theartisticalterationofawordorphrasefromitspropermeaningtoanother.”Traditionally:Atrope:anonstandardmeaningusedforitsliteraryeffectSimply:metaphor:A=BFuzzinessandMetaphorConsiderthefollowingThetruthisclear.Hewasblindedbylove.Hiswritingisopaque.Iseewhatyoumean.SEEINGdomain=KNOWINGdomaineasytosee=understandunabletosee=understandhardtosee=understandsee=understandBoundary,Fuzziness,DomainandDomainMappingKnowerTopicofunderstandingQualityofunderstandingintelligenceSeerThingseenQualityofvisionVisualabilityKnowingSeeingExampleofdomainmappingFuzzinessandMetaphorCognitiveLinguistshaveidentifiedalargenumberofconventionalizedmetaphors:DESIREISHUNGER:sex-starved/sexualappetiteHOPEISLIGHT:dimhopes,rayofhope,beaconlightofhopeLOVEISAJOURNEY:Wehavecomealongwaytogether/theirmarriageisgoingoff-track/werejustspinningourwheels.THEORIESAREBUILDINGS:Thistheoryhasnowindows/IexaminedthewallsofhistheoryFuzzinessandMentalSpaceMentalspace:temporarycontainerforrelevantinformationaboutaparticulardomain:OrlandoBloomisthenewJamesBond.IraqisthenewVietnam,asprotestsreturntotheairwaves.TwomentalspacesforBloomandBond:Britishactor:OrlandoBloom:intherealityspaceCharacter:JamesBond:inthemoviespaceTwomentalspacesforIraqandVietnam:Iraq:warwiththeU.S.:inthe2004spaceVietnam:warwiththeU.S.:inthe1970spaceFuzziness,MentalSpaceBlendingMentalspaceblendingismetaphoricalblending:(non-conventionalmetaphormapping)Example1Theresnotathingthatsmagicalaboutacomputer.Oneofthemostbrilliantthingsaboutacomputeristhattheresnothingupitssleeve.(DanielDonnet:Edge94,Nov19,2001)COMPUTERSAREMAGICIANSExample2:WithTrentLottastheSenateMajorityLeader,andGingrichatthehelmintheHouse,thelisttotheRightcoulddetestabilizetheentireShipofState.NATIONISSHIOFuzzinessandMetonymyClassicaldefinition:“Metonymyisatropethattakesitsexpressionfromnearandclosethingsandbywhichwecancomprehendathingthatisnotdenominatedbyitsproperword.”(RhetoricaadHerenniumbefore82A.D.Koch,1999:140141)Moderndefinition:“Metonymyisacognitiveprocessinwhichoneconceptualentity,thevehicle,providesmentalaccesstoanotherconceptualentity,thetarget,withinthesameidealizedcognitivemodel.”(Radden&Kovecses1999:21)Classicalexample:ThepenismightierthantheswordWritingessaysismorepowerfulthanusingweapons.FuzzinessandMetonymyMetonymy:beenstudiedforOver2000yearsbyrhetoricians200yearsbyhistoricalsemanticistsAbout2decadesbycognitivelinguistsExample1KennethlovesShakespeareShakespeare:notthepersonbuttheplaywrittenbypersonExample2TheWhiteHouseneveradmitsanerrorWhiteHouse:notthebuildingbutpeopleworkinginbuildingBoundary,FuzzinessandIdealizedCognitiveModelAnIdealizedCognitiveModel,ICMorFrameisthenamegivenincognitivelinguisticstothementalrepresentationknownas“meaning”.ItisamentalconstructwhichisrecruitedinaMentalSpaceaswethinkandspeak.IthasbeenproposedbyscholarssuchasGeorgeLakoffandGillesFauconnier.Boundary,FuzzinessandFrameHereistheessenceoftheframetheory:Whenoneencountersanewsituation.,oneselectsfrommemoryastructurecalledaframe.Thisisarememberedframeworktobeadaptedtofitrealitybychangingdetailsasnecessary.Aframeisadata-structureforrepresentingastereotypedsituationlikebeinginacertainkindoflivingroomorgoingtoachildsbirthdayparty.Attachedtoeachframeareseveralkindsofinformation.Someisaboutwhatonecanexpecttohappennext(Minsky1977:355).Boundary,FuzzinessandFrameaframe=amentalrepresentationofourknowledgeoftheworld,adata-structurewhichislocatedinhumanmemoryandcanbeselected,orretrievedwhenneeded.Aframeis“anetworkofnodesandrelations”(Minsky1977:355)whichseemtobestructuredindifferentlevels.Therearethefixedtoplevels,representingthosecomponentsofasituationthatarealwaystrue,andtherearethelowerlevels,whichhavemanyterminals,“slotsthatmustbefilledbyspecificinstancesordata”(Minsky1977:355PartIVFuzzySetTheoryWhatisFuzzySetTheory?Fuzzysettheoryistheextensionofconventional(crisp)settheory.Use:Ithandlestheconceptofpartialtruth(truthvaluesbetween1(completelytrue)and0(completelyfalse).ItwasintroducedbyProf.LotfiA.ZadehofUC/Berkeleyin1965asameanstomodelthevaguenessandambiguityincomplexsystems.CrispSet&FuzzySetDarkgraylevelsdefinedbycrispsetandfuzzysettheories:CrispSet&FuzzySetExplainedClassicalcrispsettheory:todefineasetofgraylevelsthatsharethepropertydark:weneedathreshold,saythegraylevel0-100.Allgraylevelsbetween0and100areelementofthisset,theothersdonotbelongtotheset.Fuzzysettheory:todefinethisset,weneedtwothresholds,e.g.graylevels50and150.Allgraylevelsthatarelessthan50arethefullmemberoftheset,allgraylevelsthataregreaterthan150arenotthememberoftheset.Thegr