诗歌韵律介绍(文学).doc

Lets Learn Poetry Lyric poetry is typically characterized by brevity, melody, and emotional intensity. The music of lyrics makes them memorable, and their brevity contributes to the intensity of their emotional expression. Originally designed to be sung to a musical accompaniment (the word lyric derives from the Greek lyre) , lyrics have been the predominant type of poetry in the West for several hundred years. The tones, moods, and voices of lyric poems are variable and as complexly intertwined as human feeling, thought, and imagination. Generally considered the most compressed poetic type, lyrics typically express much in little:I. Types of Poetry:1. Narrative poetry(叙事诗)： Epic（史诗）； Ballard(民谣)； Romance（传奇）2. lyrics （抒情诗）The major forms of lyrics are: (1) Epigram（警句诗）The epigram is a brief witty poem that is often satirical, such as Alexander Popes On the Collar of a Dog.(2) Elegy（挽歌）The elegy is a lament for the dead, such as Thomas Grays Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard.(3) Ode（颂诗）The ode is a long stately poem in stanzas of varied length, meter, and form. An example of the ode is John Keatss Ode to a Nightinggale: (4) Aubude（黎明別歌）The Aubude is a love lyric expressing complaint that dawn a0oaicer must part from his lover. An example of the Aubude is The Sun Rising.(5) sonnet（十四行诗）The sonnet condenses into fourteen lines an expression of emotions or an articulation of idea according to one of two basic patterns: (or Petrarchan ) and the English (or Shakespearean). An Italian sonnet is composed of an eight-line octave and a six-line sonnet A Shakespearean sonnet is composed of three four-line quatrain and a concluding two-line couplet. The thought and feeling in each sonnet form typically follow the divisions suggested by their structural patterns. Thus an Italian sonnet may state a problem in the octave and present a solution in its sestet. A Shakespearean sonnet will usually introduce a subject in the first quatrain, expand or develop it in the second and third quatrains, and conclude something about it in its final couplet.4. Elements of poetry(诗歌要素)The elements of a poem include a speaker whose voice we hear in : its diction or selection of words; its syntax or the order of those words; its imagery or details of sight, sound, taste, smell, and touch; its figures of speech or non-literal ways of expressing one thing in terms of another, such as symbols and metaphors; its sound effects, especially rhyme, assonance, and alliteration; its rhythm and meter or the pattern of accents we hear in the poems words, phrases, lines. (1) Voice: speaker and toneIn listening to a poems language, in hearing the voice of its speaker, we catch its tone and feeling and ultimately its meaning. The range of tones we find in poems is as - various and complex as the range of voices and attitudes we discern in everyday experience. One of the more important and persistent is the ironic tone of voice.(2) DictionAt their most successful, poems include the best words in the best order, as Samuel Taylor Coleridge has said. Often for both poets and readers the best we those that do the most work; they convey feelings and indirectly imply ideas rather than state them outright. Poets choose word because it suggests what they want to suggest. Its appropriateness is a function of both its denotation and its connotation.(3)ImageryAn image is a concrete representation of a sense impression, a or an idea. Images appeal to one or more of our senses or more precisely, they trigger our imaginative reenactment of sense nce by rendering feeling and thought in concrete details related to our physical apprehension of the world. Images may be visual (something seen), aural (something heard), tactile (something felt), olfactory (something smelled), or gustatory (something owed) .Poetry, characteristically, is specific-in details that appeal to senses that we perceive the world. we hear dogs bark and children laugh; we feel the sting of a bitterly cold wind; we smell the heavy aroma of perfume; we taste (as well as smell and feel) the ice cream or pizza we may enjoy eating. Poetry includes such concrete details and thereby triggers our memories, stimulates our feelings, and enjoins our response.(4) Figures of speech: simile and metaphorRhetoricians have catalogued more than 250 different figures of speech, expressions or ways of using words in a non-literal sense. They include hyperbole or exaggeration ( f11 die if I miss that game); underestimate (Being flayed alive is somewhat painful) synecdoche or using a part to signify the whole (Lend me a hand) , metonymy or substituting an attribute of a thing for the thing itself (step on the gas); personification, endowing inanimate objects or abstract concepts with animate characteristics of qualities (the lettuce was lonely without tomatoes and cucumbers for company). We will not go on to name and illustrate the others but instead will concentrate on two specially important for poetry (and for the other literary genres as well): simile and metaphor.The heart of both these figures is comparison-the making of connections between normally unrelated things, seeing one thing in terms of another. Robert Frost suggests that metaphor is central to poetry, and that, essentially, poetry is a way of saying one thing and meaning another, saying one thing in terms of another.Although both figures involve comparisons between unlike things, simile establishes the comparison explicitly with the words like or as. Metaphor, on the other hand, employs no such explicit verbal clue. The comparison is implied in such a way that the figurative term is substituted for or identified with the literal one. My daughter dances like an angel is a simile; my daughter is an angel is a metaphor. (5) SymbolismA symbol is any object or action that means more than itself, any object or action that represents something beyond itself. A rose, for example, can represent beauty or love or transience. A tree may represent a familys roots and branches. A soaring bird might stand Light might symbolize hope or knowledge or life. water familiar symbols may represent different, even opposite things, depending on how they are deployed in a particular symbols like light and darkness, fire and water can stand for contradictory things. Water, for example, which typically symbolizes life (rain, fertility, food, life), can also stand for death hurricanes, floods). And fire, which often indicates destruction, can represent purgation or purification. The meaning of any symbol, whether an object, an action, or a gesture, is controlled by its context.Even in following such guidelines, there will be occasions when we are not certain that a poem is symbolic. And there will be times when, though we are fairly confident that certain details are symbolic, we are not confident about what they symbolize. Suc uncertainty is due largely to the nature of interpretation, which is art rather than a science. But these interpretive complications are. also due to the differences in complexity and variability with whicit poets use symbols. The most complex symbols resist definitive and final explanation. We can circle around them, but we exhaust their significance nor define their meaning.(6) SyntaxFrom a Greek word meaning to arrange together, syntax refers to the grammatical structure of words in sentences and the development of sentences in longer units throughout the poem. Poets use syntax as they use imagery, diction, structure, sound, and rhythm to express meaning and convey feeling. A poems syntax is an important element of its tone and a guide to a speakees state of mind. Speakers who repeat themselves or who break off abruptly in the midst of a thought, for example, reveal something about how they feel.(n Sound: rhyme, alliteration and assonanceThe most familiar element of poetry is rhyme, which can be defined as the matching of final vowel and consonant sounds in two or more words. When the corresponding sounds occur at the ends of lines we have end rhyme; when they occur within lines we have internal rhyme.For the reader rhyme is a pleasure, for the poet a challenge. Part of its pleasure for the reader is in anticipating and hearing a poems echoing song. Part of its challenge for the poet is in rhyming naturally, without forcing the rhythm, the syntax, or the sense. When the challenge is met successfully, the poem is a pleasure to listen to; it sounds natural to the ear. An added bonus is that rhyme makes it easier to remember.Besides rhyme, two other forms of sound play prevail in poetry; alliteration or repetition of of consonant sounds, especially at the beginning og a words, and assonance or the repetition of vowel !m witty guide to poetic technique, Rhymes Reason, John Hollander describes alliteration(押头韵)and assonance（半谐音） like this:assonance is the spirit of a rhyme,A common vowel, hovering like a sigh, After its consonantal body dies.alliteration lightly links Stressed syllables with common consonants. Both alliteration and assonance are clearly audible in Stopping, particularly in the third stanza:He gives his harness bells a shake To ask if there is some mistake. The only other sounds the sweep Of easy wind and downy flake.Notice that the long e of sweep is echoed in easy and downy.and that the ow of the downy echoes the same sound in. These repetitions of sound accentuate the images the words embody: aural images (wind-blow and snowfall), tactile imthe soft fluff of down and the feel of the gently blowing wvx: , , and visual images (the white flakes of snow).The alliterative ss m some, sound, and sweep are supported by the internal and terminal ss: Gives, his, harness bdl:, and is, and also by mid-word ss: ask, mistake, and easy. There is a difference in the weight of these sounds; some are heavier than others-the two similar heavy ss of easy and his contrast the lighter softer s in harness and mistake.(8) Rhythm and meter（节奏和韵律）Rhythm is the pulse or beat we feel in a phrase of music or a line of poetry. Rhythm refers to the regular recurrence of the acc or stress in poem or song. We derive our sense of rhythm from eryday life and from our experience with language and music. We experience the rhythm of day and night, the seasonal rhythm of the year, the beat of our hearts, and the rise and fall of our chests as we breathe in and out.Poets rely heavily on rhythm to express meaning and convey feeling. In The Sun Rising, John Donne puts words together in a pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables:BUsy old FOOL, unRUly SUN WHY DOST THOU THUS Through WINdows, and through CURtains, CALL on US?Donne uses four accents per line-even in the second more slowly paced short line. Later in the stanza, he retards the tempo further. Listen to the accents in the following lines:LOVE, all aLIKE, no SEAson knows, nor CLIME,Nor HOURS, DAYS, MONTHS, which ARE the RAGS of TIME.The accents result partly from Donnes use of monosyllabic words and partly from pauses within the line (indicated by commas). Such pauses are called caesuras and are represented by a double slash (/n. The final couplet of Donnes poem illustrates a common use of caesura-to split a line near its midpoint: Shine here to us, / and thou art everywhere;This bed thy center is, rr these walls thy sphere. Marking the accents as well, we get this: No. Dateand dactylic ( - ) meters, on the other hand, are said to be falling meters because they begin with a stressed syllable and decline in pitch and emphasis. (Syllables at the ends of trochaic. and dactylic lines are generally unstressed. )Here is a chart of the various meters and poetic feet. Rising feet Foot MeterExampleFootMeterExampleRising feet (上升音步) Falling feet (下降音步) Substitute feet (替代型) iamb anapestdactyl Trocheespndee pyrrhic iambic(抑扬格) anapestic(抑抑扬格) dactylictrochaic(扬抑格) spondaic (扬扬格) pyrrhic (抑抑格) Preventprrventcomprehend FootballcheerfullyKnick-knack(light of the world)A chart of the various meters and poetic feetDuple meters: 一个音步两个音节，如扬抑格和抑扬格Triple meters: 一个音步三个音节，如扬抑抑格和抑抑扬格不同诗行的音步数：（number of feet per line）单音步： One foot monometer双音步： two feet dimeter三音步： three feet trimester四音步： four feet tetrameter四音步： four feet tetrameter五音步： five feet pentameter六音步： six feet hexameter七音步： seven feet heptameter八音步： eight feet OctameterSt. GeorgeBritish MonarchsSt George is the patron saint of England and among the most famous of Christian figures. But of the man himself, nothing is certainly known. Our earliest source, Eusebius of Caesarea, writing c. 322, tells of a soldier of noble birth who was put to death under Diocletian at Nicomedia on 23 April, 303, but makes no mention of his name, his country or his place of burial. According to the apocryphal Acts of St George current in various versions in the Eastern Church from the fifth century, George held the rank of tribune in the Roman army and was beheaded by Diocletian for protesting against the Emperors persecution of Christians. George rapidly became venerated throughout Christendom as an example of bravery in defence of the poor and the defenceless and of the Christian faith.George was probably first made well known in England by Arculpus and Adamnan in the early eighth century. The Acts of St George, which recounted his visits to Caerleon and Glastonbury while on service in England, were translated into Anglo-Saxon. Among churches dedicated to St George was one at Doncaster in 1061. George was adopted as the patron saint of soldiers after he was said to have appeared to the Crusader army at the Battle of Antioch in 1098. Many similar stories were transmitted to the West by Crusaders who had heard them from Byzantine troops, and were circulated further by the troubadours. When Richard 1 was campaigning in Palestine in 1191-92 he put the army under the protection of St George.Because of his widespread following, particularly in the Near East, and the many miracles attributed to him, George became universally recognized as a saint sometime after 900. Originally, veneration as a saint was authorized by local bishops but, after a number of scandals, the Popes began in the twelfth century to take control of the procedure and to systematize it. A lesser holiday in honour of St George, to be kept on 23 April, was declared by the Synod of Oxford in 1222; and St George had become acknowledged as Patron Saint of England by the end of the fourteenth century. In 1415, the year of Agincourt, Archbishop Chichele raised St Georges Day to a great feast and ordered it to be observed like Christmas Day. In 1778 the holiday reverted to a simple day of devotion for English Catholics.The banner of St George, the red cross of a martyr on a white background, was adopted for the uniform of English soldiers possibly in the reign of Richard 1, and later became the flag of England and the White Ensign of the Royal Navy. In a seal of Lyme Regis dating from 1284 a ship is depicted bearing a flag with a cross on a plain background. During Edward 111s campaigns in France in 1345-49, pennants bearing the red cross on a white background were ordered for the kings ship and uniforms in the same style for the men at arms. When Richard 11 invaded Scotland in 1385, every man was ordered to wear a signe (sic) of the arms of St George, both before and behind, whilst death was threatened against any of the enemys soldiers who do bear the same crosse or token of Saint George, even if they be prisoners.The fame of St George throughout Europe was greatly increased by the publication of the Legenda Sanctorum (Readings on the Saints), later known as the Legenda Aurea (The Golden Legend) by James of Voragine in 1265. The name golden legend does not refer to St George but to the whole collection of stories, which were said to be worth their weight in gold. It was this book which popularized the legend of George and the Dragon. The legend may have been particularly well received in England because of a similar legend in Anglo-Saxon literature. St George became a stock figure in the secular miracle plays derived from pagan sources which continued to be performed at the beginning of spring. The origin of the legend remains obscure. It is first recorded in the late sixth century and may have been an allegory of the persecution of Diocletian, who was sometimes referred to as the dragon in ancient texts. The story may also be a christianized version of the Greek legend of Perseus, who was said to have rescued the virgin Andromeda from a sea monster at Arsuf or Jaffa, near Lydda (Diospolis), where the cult of St George grew up around the site of his supposed tomb.In 1348, George was adopted by Edward 111 as principal Patron of his new order of chivalry, the Knights of the Garter. Some believe that the Order took its name from a pendant badge or jewel traditionally shown in depictions of Saint George. The insignia of the Order include a Collar and Badge Appendant, known as the George. The badge is of gold and presents a richly enamelled representation of St George on horseback slaying the dragon. A second medal, the Lesser George, also depicting George and the dragon, is worn attached to the Sash. The objective of the Order was probably to focus the efforts of England on further Crusades to reconquer the Holy Land. The earliest records of the Order of the Garter were destroyed by fire, but it is believed that either in 1348 or in 1344 Edward proclaimed St George Patron Saint of England. Although the cult of St George was suppress