中国文化通览(4).doc

明清文化明清时期，社会经济的发展酝酿着资本主义的萌芽，而政治的专制集权高压抑制了新的生产力的发展。在这一社会背景之下，市民阶层不断发展，早期的启蒙思想逐渐兴起，明清之际百年间，其代表人物先后有李贽、黄宗羲、顾炎武、王夫之、戴震等。他们揭露了君主专制制度的不合理性，批判了理学的虚伪与残忍，提出了“工商皆本”的主张，倡言经世致用的实学。但总的看，这种社会批判思想还处于初级阶段，尚没有形成完整的思想体系，所以也不可能提出新的社会改革方案。这一时期，面对日益发展成熟的传统文化，对它的学术成果进行系统全面的整理成为统治者的要务。明清两朝投入了巨大的人力和财力对浩如烟海的古籍文献进行了收集整理，相继编纂了大型类书永乐大典、古今图书集成，大型丛书四库全书，文学总集全唐文、全唐诗，大型工具书康熙字典、佩文韵府、经籍纂诂等。与此相对应的是考据学的兴盛，形成了影响甚大的“乾嘉学派”。学者们运用文字训诂的方法，从文字的形义、音韵等方面考证注释经书古籍。又从版本、目录的角度考订、校勘古代文献。这些工作为保存和继承传统文化做出了重要的贡献。明清的文坛，小说的成就最大。著名的长篇小说有三国志通俗演义、水浒传、西游记、红楼梦，合称四大古典小说。著名的短篇小说集有“三言二拍”和聊斋志异。科技方面也出现了一批具有总结性的学术巨著，如李时珍的本草纲目、潘季驯的河防一览、徐光启的农政全书、宋应星的天工开物、徐霞客的徐霞客游记和阮元的畴人传等。辉煌的文化成就与奄奄的政治气象，构成了明清文化一道奇特的风景线。明清之际中外文化交流日益发展，但与以往以东学西渐为主要形式不同，西学东渐成为这个时期一个重要历史现象。明末清初，西方传教士进入中国，在向中国人传播上帝福音的同时，也译介了大量西方的天文、地理、数学、物理等方面的书籍和著作，将西方先进的科学文化知识传入中国。 Culture in the Ming Dynasty and the Qing DynastyDuring the Ming and the Qing dynasties, rudiments of capitalism began to take shape in the socio-economic development. However, the centralized despotism and coercion in politics restrained the development of new productive forces. The stratum of townspeople swelled constantly in this social background. The early signs of the ideology of enlightenment started to appear. The representative figures were Li Zhi, Huang Zongxi, Gu Yanwu, Wang Fuzhi and Dai Zhen in the end of the Ming Dynasty and the early Qing Dynasty. They exposed the irrationality of the system of autocratic monarchy, condemned the hypocrisy and cruelty of Neo-Confucianism, advocated practical learning of managing state affairs and proposed a notion that both industry and commerce were foundations. At the same time this criticism on the whole was still in the primary stage. An developed system of thought had not yet come into existence. Therefore, these social critics were not able to put forward a blue print for social reform.Confronting the increasingly mature traditional culture, the ruling class took it as their key task to arrange the academic achievements in a systematic and comprehensive way. The Ming and the Qing dynasties employed plenty of manpower and abundant financial resources to collect and systemize a tremendous amount of ancient books. They compiled in succession the following works: Great Encyclopedia of Yongleand Corpus of Ancient and Modern Books, with materials taken from various sources and arranged according to subjects; the large-scale series Complete Library in the Four Branches of Literature; the general anthology of prose and verse Complete Collection of Tang Proseand Complete Collection of Tang Poetry; large reference books The Kangxi Dictionary, Peiwen Yunfu and Exegesis of Confucian Classics. Meanwhile there was an upsurge of textual criticism, engendering the fairly influential “Qian Jia School”. By means of scholium, the scholars were engaged in textual research and annotation of Confucian classics and other ancient works from the angles of grapheme and phonology. They also emended the ancient books from the angles of edition and catalogue. Their exegetics of words in ancient books contributed tremendously to preserving and inheriting the traditional culture.In the literary world of the Ming and the Qing dynasties, the greatest success was attained in the creation of novels. The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Heroes of the Marshes and Pilgrimage to the Westand A Dream of Red Mansionswere regarded as the four greatest classical novels. The famous collections of short stories included three collections of short stories edited by Feng Menlong and Strange Tales from a Lonely Studio. A number of magnum opuses appeared in the realm of science and technology, such as Compendium to Materia Medicawritten by Li Shizhen, A Survey of Flood-Prevention Workby Pan Jixun, Complete Treatise on Agriculture by Xu Guangqi, Exploitation of the Works of Nature by Song Yingxing, Xu Xiakes Travel Notesby Xu Xiake, and Biography of Almanac Compilers by RuanYuan. A bizarre outlook of the culture in the Ming and Qing dynasties thus formed: brilliant cultural consummation within the backdrop of the decadent political atmosphere.During the Ming and the Qing dynasties, the cultural exchanges between China and the foreign countries were developing increasingly. Different from the previous process, which mainly spread Oriental culture to the West, the introduction of Western Learning to China became an important phenomenon then. Between the late Ming Dynasty and the early Qing Dynasty, the missionaries from the West arrived in China. While evangelizing with their gospels, they translated into Chinese considerable Western literature on astronomy, geography, mathematics, physics and other subjects, bringing with them advanced Western science and technology to China. However, their sphere of religious activity was rather limited and the people who had the opportunity to acquaint themselves with the knowledge were confined to the literati and officialdom in the imperial court. The Opium War in 1840 ushered in the era of the introduction of Occidentalism into China on a large scale, with the gateway of China being forced to open wide. It was stamped with a distinctive color of colonial invasion. Meanwhile, the knowledge about mathematics, physics, chemistry, geography, astronomy, medicine, and agriculture was introduced to China. Western social science was brought to China as well, greatly transforming the Chinese superstructure and ideology. The traditional culture was confronted with momentous challenges.中国人的传统世界观、价值观和思维模式The traditional worldview, values and mode of thinking of the Chinese people 理性的求和谐主平衡的世界观在对世界的基本认识和处世态度上，中国人形成了理性的、求和谐而主平衡的思想观念和安土乐天的生活情趣。农耕经济是中国人谋生存的基本经济方式，农业文明的早熟和相对的稳定性养成了中国人理性和人文主义的传统。中国人以理智的眼光去审视自然和社会，以清醒的态度去处理现实问题，对宗教具有一种先天的疏离，偶然为之，也采取了实用主义的态度，仅仅局限于消灾祈福，“急来抱佛脚”是形象的譬喻。他们很少在宗教的精神世界中流连忘返，对宗教所宣扬的来世和彼岸世界三心二意，关心专注的重点始终是现实社会和此岸世界。孔子说：“务民之义，敬鬼神而远之，可谓知 (智) 矣。”庄子讲：“六合之外，圣人存而不论。”这些言论代表了传统的主流思想对宗教的态度。中国人倾心于实实在在的道德和政治，“内圣外王”成为最高的理想境界。他们追求的精神生活是“诚意、正心、修身”的道德自我满足，他们践履的现实生活是“齐家、治国、平天下”。正是中国人清醒理性的生活态度，所以在中国的历史上，从来没有出现过像西方中世纪那样政教合一的时代。历史上，中国人崇尚“天人合一”和“中庸”思想。“天人合一”和“中庸”思想同样是农业文明的产物。农业生产对自然条件的依赖性强，不违农时和风调雨顺是农业生产成功的前提，最初的“天人合一”思想从中产生，主要强调人与自然的协调以及不可分割的关系。儒、道两家都讲“天人合一”。周易文言说：“夫大人者，与天地合其德，与日月合其明，与四时合其序，与鬼神合其吉凶。”老子中则有“用人配天”的思想。后来“天人合一”思想不仅是处理人与自然关系的准则，更升华为一种人生追求。“天”成为一种终极真理与理想境界，“天人合一”指人格的提升达到了一种难以企及的崇高状态。具体一点讲，儒家的“天人合一”指人格的道德化，“天”是一种崇高的道义精神和道德境界；道家的“天人合一”指人格的自然化，“天”是一种原始的自然精神和本真状态。“天人合一”在这里有了强调身心和谐的含义。由此出发，中国人崇尚人与自然的和谐、人际关系的和谐，以及身心的和谐。“天人合一”作为一种世界观，主张创立一个和谐平衡的世界。“中庸”思想就其性质而言，是一种方法论。汉代的经学大师郑玄把“中庸”解释为“用中”，最为贴切。“中庸”思想讲矛盾的对立统一。如政治上讲“仁”与“礼”的统一，经济上讲“贫”与“富”的统一，伦理上讲“义”与“利”的统一，教育上讲“教”与“学”、“学”与“思”的统一，人格塑造上讲“德”与“才”、“文”与“质”、“刚”与“柔”的统一。所谓“统一”，就是在矛盾的对立面之间求得一种相对的平衡和协调。对此有一种形象的说法，叫作“执其两端而用其中”。中庸思想反对偏激与极端，主张不偏不倚，不温不火，恰到好处，是一种“运用之妙，存乎一心”的斟酌。求和谐而主平衡，其终极目的是保持稳定，求稳是中国人的一大性格特征。农业文明的特点之一是定居生活，逐渐形成了中国人安土重迁，崇尚稳定的生活方式。 The Rational World Outlook Seeking for Harmony and Maintaining Equilibrium In terms of their worldview and philosophy of life, the Chinese developed a rational notion of seeking for harmony and maintaining equilibrium as well as an optimistic sentiment to be content with ones lot.Farming was the basic economic mode for the existence of Chinese people. The prematurity and relative stability of the agricultural civilization nurtured the tradition of rationality and humanism of the Chinese. They had a sensible perspective of nature and society and coped with reality with a sober mind. They seemed to bear an innate immunity to religion. They mostly believed in pragmatism, though they professed a religion occasionally, which is confined to averting calamities and praying for blessings. Hence the saying “clasp Buddhas feet when in trouble seek help at the last moment”, which is a vivid portrayal. They would seldom find the spiritual ethos of religion so enchanting that they couldnt tear themselves away from it; instead they were half-hearted about the otherworldliness and Faramita preached by the religion. The pivot of their attention was without exception the reality and this-sidedness. Confucius once said, “To be committed earnestly to ones duty to humanity, and, while respecting the spirits, to keep aloof from them, may be called wise act.” Zhuang Zi also dictated, “As to what lies beyond the six realms of Heaven and Earth, East and West, North and South, the sages set aside without comment.” Both represent the attitude held by the traditional mainstream thought towards religion. The Chinese were enamored with the substantial morals and politics, the supreme morality at once internalized as cultivation and externalized as governance of virtue being the ultimate realm. The spiritual life aspired by them was that of “sincerity, integrity and intellectual cultivation”. The realistic life they were after was to “keep your family in order, govern the state effectively and bring peace to the world”. Just because of this sober and rational philosophy of life, there never occurred in Chinese history such a period of integrated administration by church and state as that in the west in the Middle Ages.The Chinese upheld the theory of “the golden mean” and the notion of “oneness of man and nature” which were also the outcomes of the agricultural civilization. The agricultural production relied heavily on the blessing of nature; therefore the premise of its success lay in complying with farming seasons and having favorable weather; hence emerged the initial idea of harmony of man with nature, which emphasized the harmony and the inseparable relationship between man and nature. Both Confucianism and Taoism maintained this idea. It reads in Zhou Yi, a classical Chinese book on changes, “a great man should act in accordance with the law of nature, be as bright as the sun and the moon, be as orderly as the four seasons, punish evildoers and encourage people to do good as the spirits do”. It also reads in Lao Zi that “Man should adapt himself to the nature.”Later the idea that man is an integral part of nature was not only a norm to handle the relationship between man and nature, it also experienced the sublimation to echo a very lofty realm of human life. The concept of “Heaven” or “cosmic spirit” represented the ultimate truth and ideal state. The oneness of man and nature implied the elevation of moral quality to a state hard of access. In Confucianism it means the moralization of personality, “Heaven” indicating sublime morality and spirit. In Taoism it means the naturalization of personality, “Heaven” being a pristine and natural spirit in its original state. The former stresses moral cultivation, while the latter, return to the nature. The theory was so developed in this way as to encourage the harmony between man and nature, between human beings, and between physical and mental health. As a world outlook, this favors a harmonious and balanced world.The notion of “the golden mean” was in nature a methodology. Zheng Xuan, a master in the study of Confucian classics in the Han Dynasty interpreted this doctrine as “yongzhong”, i.e. to seek the appropriate degree between the two poles, which was quite felicitous. The golden mean stresses the unity of opposites, like that of benevolence and rites in politics, poverty and wealth in economy, righteousness and interests in ethics, teaching and learning as well as learning and thinking in education, moral integrity and ability, polish and substance as well as force and grace in the molding of personality. The alleged “unity” refers to the attempt to seek a relative equilibrium between two contradictory sides. As a vivid saying goes, “holding the two ends but using the middle part”. The golden mean is for the impartial and mild but against the extreme. The ingenuity in varying tactics depends on mother wit.The ultimate motive in seeking for harmony and maintaining equilibrium is to maintain stability one of Chinese peoples major traits. One feature of agricultural civilization is the maintenance of a settled life. The harmonious and stable life molds the Chinese peoples character of being content with what they are and what they have. With little aggressiveness they are inclined to be satisfied with a simple and placid life. They seldom lose control of themselves, neither over-delighted, nor over-sorrowful, but imbued with persistence. They have a serene and sober dignity, and an optimistic attitude to grievances and disasters. They are skillful in dissolving injustice and calamity with tolerance and humor. In the guise of their mildness surge high aspirations. However, this might engender some limitations, such as the inertia of resting on ones laurels, being worldly wise or excessive self-protection in front of disputes over rights and wrongs or gains and losses.大一统的观念和注重整体利益的价值取向中国传统社会具有宗法社会的性质，重视人伦关系成为其文化特色。孟子将“人伦”归结为“父子有亲，君臣有义，夫妇有别，长幼有序，朋友有信”。这五种基本的社会关系有四种关系与血缘和家庭有关，而国家关系正是这种血缘和家庭关系的拟制。人伦文化注重血缘亲情，强调等级名分，强化社会成员的角色意识，着眼于家庭和社会利益的全局，注重内部的秩序与凝聚力。正是在人伦文化的基础上，形成了大一统的观念和注重整体利益的价值取向。中国传统价值观念强调大一统和注重整体利益。鉴于小农经济的松散性，为了把千万个散漫的小农家庭组织起来，以维持社会的秩序和运行，作为君主专制中央集权制度的补充，大一统观念应运而生。大一统的观念由来已久，早在西周就产生了“溥天之下，莫非王土，率土之滨，莫非王臣”的观念。就是在政治上分裂割据的春秋战国时代，“尊王攘夷”、“王者执一”仍然是华夏各国的共识。秦汉统一王朝的建立，在制度上进一步强化了大一统的观念。秦始皇的琅刻石宣称：“六合之内，皇帝之土”。汉武帝尤其推崇春秋“大一统”的精神，大一统的观念进一步深入人心。这一时期产生的历史巨著史记，在五帝本纪中把东夷、西夏，以及夏、商、周、秦、汉，包括四边的戎狄蛮夷，都归结为黄帝的子孙，黄帝成为中华各民族的共同祖先。“炎黄子孙”的概念由此产生。“大一统”的观念获得了族源学上的论证，从此成为中国人挥之不去的文化情结。传统社会宗法关系强有力的纽带作用和强调集权统一的观念文化与制度文化，培养出中华民族注重整体利益的价值观念。在这种价值观念中，社会的利益、国家的利益和家庭的利益始终是第一位的，而地方的利益、局部的利益和个人利益往往被忽视。个性被淹灭在共性之中，整齐划一是理想典范，标新立异则是异端另类。注重整体利益的价值取向培育了中华民族的爱国主义和集体主义的精神传统。在中国历史上，无数的民族英雄在民族发展的关键时刻，能放弃个人的利益，甚至置自己的家庭生命于不顾，为了民族的大义，赴汤蹈火，死不旋踵。这些民族英雄身上表现出来的精神，受到历代人民的崇敬，最终凝结为我们民族的精神脊梁。中华民族在长期曲折的发展中，能挽狂澜于既倒，历劫难而不衰，主要得力于此。爱国主义和集体主义精神，使中华民族具有强大的凝聚力和生命力。但注重整体利益的价值取向在某些条件下可能产生一些消极的影响。专制集权可能导致暴政，过分地强调整体的需要容易造成对个体权利的忽视和压制，不利于调动个人的积极性和创造性。所以在倡导爱国主义和集体主义精神的同时，如何正确处理调整集体与个人、整体与局部的利益，在二者间求得一种相对平衡，发挥各方面的积极性，成为一个很重要的理论问题和实践问题。 The Conception of Great National Unity and Values of CollectivismChinas ancient society was patriarchal in nature, in which human relations were given priority. Mencius summed up human relations as “Between father and son, there should be affection; between sovereign and minister, righteousness; between husband and wife, attention to their separate functions; between old and young, a proper order; and between friends, fidelity.” Out of these five basic human relations, four were related with blood ties and family. State relationship was a copy of this kind of family blood relationship. The culture based on human relations held as essential the blood relationships, and highlighted peoples social status. With a view to the overall situation of the family and social interests, it paid special attention to the internal order and cohesiveness. It was on the basis of this culture that the concept of great national unity and collectivism came into being.Traditional Chinese values attached great importance to collective interest. In light of the slack small-scaled peasant society, in order to organize thousands of loosely connected peasant families to sustain social order and operate as complements of autocratically centralized system, the conception of great national unity emerged as the times required in ancient China. Early in the Western Zhou Dynasty, there was the notion that “all the land under the sun belongs to the king; all the people within this country are the kings subjects.” Even in the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States periods, plagued by internal wars among the states, it was still the common understanding of all the states of China that “each should respect the king and reject the officials” and that “there is only one king across the land”. The founding of the unified empire in the Qin Dynasty further consolidated the notion of great national unity. Inscription on First Emperors Langya engraved stone reads “All the land in the universe belongs to the Emperor.” Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty canonized in particular the spirit of great national unity, making it deeply rooted among the people. According to the Historical Records, written in this period, people of Eastern Yi and Western Xia, of Xia, Shang, Zhou, Qin and Han dynasties, and of the minority nationalities living around the Central Plain, such as the Rong, Di, Man and Yi, were all descendants of Huangdi, the common ancestor of all the Chinese nationalities. Thus was formed the notion of descendants of Yandi and Huangdi. Great national unity was proved from the angle of the nationality genesis, thereafter a cultural complex lingering in the mind of the Chinese people.The Chinese value of collectivism was cultivated by the forceful tie of the patriarchal relations and the culture of ideology and institution that gave prominence to centralization and unity. The interest of the society, the country and the family was always counted number one while that of the locality, the part, or the individual sometimes ignored. Individuality gave way to universality. Uniformity was considered apotheosis whereas unconventionality, heterodoxy.The values asserting collective interest fostered in China the spiritual tradition of patriotism and collectivism. In history, countless national heroes, at the crucial moment of national development, abandoned individual interest, even disregarding their own lives and families, to go through fire and water for the cardinal principle of national interest. The spirit embodied by them has been adored generation after generation, which has finally been condensed and crystallized into the spiritual tower of Chinese nation. During the long process of development full of twists and turns, the reason why the Chinese managed to suffer the vicissitudes of history without declining and save the critical situations by herculean efforts was mainly due to the formidable cohesive force an