英汉写作对比及英文写作标准.doc

英汉写作对比及英文写作标准 I Teaching Objectives On completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:1. understand the difference between the two languages2. have some insights into the four standards of writing in English.II. The Points to Be Highlighted英汉思维方式及语篇结构对比（中文：迂回式，具体一般型；英文：直线型，一般具体型）英汉段落结构对比 （中文：螺旋形上升，通过反复强调提出主题；英文：直线型，有明显的主题句）英汉句子结构对比英文写作四个标准III. Teaching Approaches and FacilitiesApproaches: 1. Discussion 2. Questions and answersFacilities: blackboard; on-line research; IV. Teaching Procedures and ContentsI 英汉句子结构对比要想写出地道的英文句子，应该首先掌握英语三种基本句子结构：(1) 简单句（Simple Sentences）一个主语，一个动词i. 一个谓语动词和一个单数主语Computers make life easy for many people.ii. 两个并列谓语动词和一个单数主语Computers cost a lot of money and require regular maintenance.iii. 两个并列谓语动词和一个复数主语Businesses and individuals buy computers but use them mostly for correspondence.iv. 一个谓语动词和一个复数主语His teeth and his eyes hurt.(2) 并列句（Compound Sentences）并列句包括两个或两个以上独立句，它们用以下三种方式连接在一起：i. 用分号连接Some people like computers; others are afraid of modern technology.ii. 用逗号和括号内七个连词之一（并列连词and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet-boy fans）Students usually write with a computer, but I like writing by hand.iii. 用分号和连接副词，如furthermore, moreover, therefore等Students usually write with a computer; however, I like writing by hand.连接副词：l 常见位置：句首，表示解释的可以位于句中l 用连接副词连接并列句时，在第一个分句后用分号，而在连接副词后用逗号表示让步：however, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the other hand, still表示列举和补充：first(ly), second(ly), etc; finally, last; also, besides, furthermore, moreover, next, then, in addition表示总结和结果: thus, therefore；as a result, consequently, hence, accordingly表示总结：namely转换话题：meanwhile否定的条件：otherwise表示对比：instead(3) 复合句（Complex Sentences）复合句由一个主句和一个或多个从句组成。英语中一共有三种基本类型的复合句：i. 从句相当于副词状语从句Although computers can save time, they take a long time to understand.l because/so, although/but不同时出现ii. 从句相当于形容词定语从句Database software is essential for companies which need to maintain records.iii. 从句相当于名词主，宾，补，同位语从句Most experts insist that computers are essential in schools.2.4 竹竿与大树英文写作强调句子结构的变化和丰富性。在雅思考试中，考生应避免使用重复的句子结构，而应采用变化的方式来表达自己的观点。其实，练习使用变化的句型最好的方法就是注意观察其他的作者是如何构造句子的，并且模仿他们。另外，考生需要做大量的练习才能写出有意义的、富有变化的、准确的句子。汉语的句式结构借助自然语序，按动作发生的顺序或因果逻辑关系来排列，各个分句逐步交代，呈线性递进，来表达复杂的思想。可以说，汉语的句子结构如同竹子一样一节节地延伸。而英语则不同。英语的句子就像一棵大树。句子中的主句就是大树的主干，各种从句，短语以及独立结构则是大树的树枝。e.g. 我原先打算七月一日去香港旅游，后来不得不取消，这使我很扫兴。It was keen disappointment that I had to cancel the visit I had intended to pay to Hong Kong on July 1st. 我又一个问题弄不懂，想请教你，你能回答吗？Can you answer a question which I want to ask and which is puzzling me?考虑到上届政府遗留下来的危机，我们在过去七年时间里所取得的成绩也就尤为显著，这是没有人可以否认的。No one will deny that what we have been able to do in the past seven years is especially striking in view of crises which we inherited from the previous Government.第一句中有三个动作：原先打算不得不取消使我很扫兴。第二句中有三个动作：弄不懂请教回答。第三句中有五个动作：考虑到遗留下来所取得的尤为显著没有人可以否认。很显然，汉语句子是按照时间和事理发展顺序，运用词汇手段顺畅表达而出的。而所对应的英语句子却打破了汉语的顺序，每个句子以主句为主干，利用从句等结构来完成英语句子的树型结构。由于汉语句子呈线性递进，竹竿型延伸，没有英文中树枝状的从属句结构，因此中国学生常常习惯用简单句和并列句，而不是用复合句来表达思想。但是，地道的英文写作中却要求大量使用从属结构。中国学生要改变在英文写作中大量使用简单句、并列句的倾向，就要善于利用英语中的从句、分词和短语等语言形式，构筑英语句子的树型结构。这是改变竹竿型简单句，写出地道英语的关键。再请看如下例句：（1）他先前在南方参加某项工程建设。完工后，就去乔治岛度假，享受高加索的阳光。他是昨天才回来的。(a) He had flown in just the day before from Georgia where he had spent his vacation basking in Caucasian sun after the completion of the construction job in which he had been engaged in the South.(b) In the South he had been engaged in a construction job. After he completed the work he went to spend his vacation in Georgia. There he basked in Caucasian sun. And he had flown in just the day before. (a)句为英语树型结构，(b)句为汉语竹竿形结构。此句中，“他昨天才回来”是本句的主句, 整个句子借助from, where, basking, after, in which等词构造结构。（2）上海的字面意思是“位于海之上”。它位于黄浦江岸。黄浦江是长江流入大海之前的最后一条支流。(a) Shanghai, which means “above the sea”, is on the Huangpu River,the lower tributary at the mouth of the Yangze.(b) Shanghai means “above the sea”. It is on the Huangpu River. TheHuangpu is the lower tributary at the mouth of the Yangze.此句中，“上海位于黄浦江岸”是本句的主句，这个树形结构的复合句还包括一个非限定定语从句以及一个同位语。英汉段落结构对比由于英语和汉语的思维模式不同，人们写作时，段落的结构组织、内容安排、语义层次发展等方面都会表现出很大的差异。其中最主要的差异是在段落发展方面英语采用直线性思维，而汉语呈现出螺旋型思维模式。汉语段落的语义发展是螺旋型的，也就是说，一个段落针对一个意思或几个意思进行阐述，而这种阐述是顺着思想自然发展的，如螺旋形式向前运动。在汉语段落中，主题句可有可无，段落的中心思想由读者来体会。一个段落里包括的内容较多，甚至有的内容和段落中心思想没有密切的关系，比如作者突发的感想。由于汉语文章的许多段落没有主题句，一段里包括的内容观点就没有什么限制了。在写作过程中，作者对中心思想的发展是通过不断重复来实现的。在一个段落中，前面已谈论过的内容，后面还会提到，或强调，或借以引出新的内容，所以说是螺旋式的。下面的例段就是典型的汉语段落：伟大的精神方能造就伟大的人。 古往今来，凡成就一番事业者，无不有着巨大的精神力量作后盾。伟大的精神造就伟大的事业。 对一个人是这样，对一个社会也是如此。不可想象，一个没有精神追求的人可以成就一番事业。精神有着神奇的作用。它一旦被人民群众所掌握就会变成巨大的物质力量。同时它也有之不可小视的销蚀作用。 这些年，在社会政治生活中出现的忽视精神文明建设的倾向，在忽视精神的正效应的同时，无形中也助长了精神的负效应。 目前社会现实中一些人政治信念的淡漠，道德支柱的倾斜，价值追求的扭曲，精神世界的苍白，行为方式的变态，日常生活中种种不文明，不道德的行为，社会上屡禁不止的腐败现象，我们已经尝够了苦果。在这一段例文中，“伟大的精神方能造就伟大的人”可以说是主题句。但是只有接下来第二句是直接说明这一点。而第三句马上转到精神与事业的关系方面：“伟大的精神造就伟大的事业”。接下的第四句“对一个人是这样，对一个社会也是如此”使读者期待作者从个人和社会两方面来说明这一点。但接下来的三句作者只说明对个人的作用，而没有对社会作用的说明。第八句又引出新的观点“同时它也有着不可小视的销蚀作用”。整个段落涉及到四个内容：(1) 伟大的精神造就伟大的人。(2) 伟大的精神造就伟大的事业。(3) 精神有着神奇的力量。(4) 同时精神也有着不可小视的销蚀作用。与汉语段落相对比，英语段落呈线性发展，也就是说，段落的内容是循着一条直线发展的。典型的英文段落是由三部分组成的：（1）主题句（Topic sentence）原则上讲，每个段落只应涉及一个主题,而主题句是一段中最重要的句子。它确定段落的中心思想，是对段落内容的高度概括。主题句可以帮助读者迅速准确地掌握段落的内容。在英文段落写作中，作者首先要确定自己要阐述的观点，并用一个句子表达出自己的观点 这就是英文段落的主题句。主题句通常放在段落的开头（开门见山不跑题），而段落的其他内容应以主题句为基础，并以细节来支持主题句中所阐述的中心思想。主题句通常是一个观点opinion，而不是一个事实fact。l Computers can be used to send e-mail. Fl Computers can save a large amount of data. Fl People can use computers to do complicated calculation. Fl Computers can make many jobs easier for people. O主题句的形成过程：事实（根据逻辑）分类结论（即主题句）例：我们的教室A 地上没有垃圾B 有很多电灯C 有两台空调机D 有三扇大窗子E 有多媒体教学设施F 桌椅一尘不染可以分3组：A& F; B& D; C&E结论：This is a very clean classroom.This classroom is very bright.This classroom is well equipped.(2) 支持句（Supporting sentences） 确定了主题句后，就要用支持句来支持和说明主题句。也就是说，写作者利用具体的证据（细节），以说明、描写、论证或阐述等方式来支持主导思想，使读者能正确地理解和获取写作者所企图表达的信息。写好支持句的关键在于紧扣主题、层次分明。（层层渐进，按逻辑顺序排列）在通常情况下，一个段落具有若干个支持句，每个支持句都具有一定的信息，以支持主题句。支持句就是用来向读者提供事实、数据、实例、原因以及个人的亲身经历等信息，以便帮助读者更好地理解作者所阐述的中心思想。支持句一定要包括具体的、足够的信息，只有这样，段落的主题才会清晰地呈现在读者面前。(3) 总结句（Summary sentence）a. 重述中心思想 ( Restating the main idea )作者可以转换词汇重述主题句中的中心思想。这一做法能够起到强调的作用，而且还可以提醒读者段落的主题，尤其是在一个较长的段落中。但是以这种方式结束段落时，一定不要把主题句重抄一遍。b. 概括段落要点 ( Summarizing the main points )有时候，主题句没有详细地论述段落的要点，因为作者会在支持句中对它们详加讨论。那么，在总结句中概括段落要点就能够帮助读者清晰地掌握段落的内容。c. 最后阐述最重要的论点 ( Putting the most important point last )有时候，一个段落会讨论某个论点的几个方面，那么作者可以把最重要的一点放在最后，以便使段落达到高潮，这样会使整个段落自然结尾。d. 以推论结束段落 （ Drawing an inference ）在详细阐述自己的观点后，作者可以采用推论来结束段落。英汉思维方式及语篇结构对比人们说话和写文章,为方便听话人和读者的理解,一定要遵循约定俗成的语篇组织规律。然而，由于不同文化在思维方式上存在着差异，其语篇组织结构也会因此而不同。中英文之间就存在这样的差异。I 汉语语篇模式中国人说话或写文章，常常不是采取直线式或直接切题的作法，而是习惯于迂回式思维，即避开主题，把自己的想法保留到最后或者含而不露，让读者自己去领悟。由于汉民族重综合的思维习惯，因此，汉语语篇模式属于典型的东方“螺旋式”。这种模式的特点是：对篇章的主题往往不是通过直截了当的方式，而是采用曲折起伏、隐喻含蓄、断续离合、迂回间接的方式来阐述而且，中国人表达事物总是按时间和事理发展顺序由因到果、由先到后、由大到小进行阐述，这种思维方式可称为具体一般型（Particular-General Pattern）。例如：（1）The village of Marlott lay amid the northeastern undulations of the beautiful Vale of Blackemore or Blackmore aforesaid, an engirdled and secluded region, for the most part untrodden as yet by tourists or landscape-painter, though within a few hours journey from London. （2）前面说过的那个美丽的布雷谷或布莱谷，是一处群山环抱、幽静偏僻的地方，虽然离伦敦不过4个钟头的路程，但是它的大部分都不曾有过游历家和风景画家的足迹。马勒村就在它东北部那块起伏地带的中间。段（2）译文是张谷若的佳作。它与原文（1）的根本区别是： 英语直截了当以主题“马勒村”为主位和重心，由里向外扩展，直到远涉伦敦；中文则以一个已知信息为主位，先远涉伦敦，再迂回到近旁的、作为主题的“马勒村”。II 英语语篇模式Hoey（1988）McCarthy(1991)认为英语语篇有三种模式： 1）概括具体型（General-specific Pattern），其特点就是由作者先把要表达的思想概括成全文的立证句（thesis statement）或段落的主题句 （topic sentence），然后举例说明或交代细节。这是典型的直线性思维。其中包括：概括举例式（Generalization-Example）和整体细节式（Preview-Detail）；2）问题解决型（Problem-Solution Pattern）；3）对照匹配型(Matching-Pattern)。1) 概括具体型（General-Specific Pattern）。这种模式在英语中是最常见的、最有代表性的。它不但广泛应用于社会科学和自然科学的议论文和说明文中，而且也常用于描写文和记叙文中。它充分体现了英、美等西方人的直线性思维模式。这种模式在英语的段落层面或语篇层面俯拾皆是。例如：An increase or a decrease in the price level affects the economic well-being of farmers. One of the best-known examples of this in American history took place throughout the late 1800s. Prices were going down, and this caused much displeasure to farmers, who were still relatively numerous. Many farmers were in debt; they had borrowed money to buy land and equipment. A farmer might have borrowed $500, and if his farm made $500 per year over his costs and living expenses, he might hope to pay the debt off in a year. If the prices the farmer received went down, say, to $250 per year, it made it very difficult for him to pay off his $500 debt. These facts show how directly the improvement of farmers life depends on the prices of their farm products. 这是一个“概括举例式（Generalization-Example）”的语篇。首句是一个主题句，道明了全段的主题思想, 下文的例证部分展开的是首句的内容：The working conditions were poor. The tables where workers sat were very high, and uncomfortable. Except for a half hour at lunchtime, there were no breaks in the day to relieve the boring work. There was no music. The walls of the workrooms were a dull gray color. I was amazed that the workers hadnt gone on strike. 这是一个“整体细节式”(Preview-Detail Pattern)的语篇。其首句概括了主题思想，然后用细节加以说明。2) 问题解决型（Problem-Solution Pattern）。这种模式的特点是先说明情况，提出问题，随后进行分析，最后提出解决问题的意见或办法。这种模式多用于叙事性文体、文学作品，探讨科技、自然或社会问题的说明文也有时出现这种模式。例如：Nowadays there are more and more traffic accidents in some big cities. It is estimated that thousands upon thousands of men, women and children are severely injured or even killed on the roads every year. Man is obviously much weaker than motor vehicles. It is a never-ending battle which man is losing.Why have there been so many road accidents? The first reason is that some pedestrians, especially old people and children, cannot see, hear or judge very well. The second reason is that some young drivers recklessly violate traffic regulations, such as driving when drunk, going the wrong direction, etc. The third reason is that sometimes something goes wrong with vehicles, so that the drivers lose control of them at a critical moment. For all this, the main cause of the road accidents is due to carelessness.It is high time that something were done about it. For example, drivers should be educated to see the importance of complying with traffic regulations and the terrible consequences of violating them. The motor vehicles should regularly be put through strict tests for safety. In addition, traffic facilities should be improved so as to make drivers safer on the roads. All these measures will certainly reduce the number of traffic accidents. 此语篇第一段提出问题，第二段分析原因，第三段提出解决问题的办法。3) 对照匹配型（Matching-Pattern）。 英语常用这种模式构成对比语段，比较两种事物的异同点。它往往存在于较长的语篇中，与“概括具体型”一起组成更复杂的语篇模式。例如：The American car of the 1980s is quite different from its old models. The most striking difference is the size. While the old models were large and spacious, the newer ones are smaller and more compact. In the past, cars were also constructed of heavier materials. Nowadays light-weight aluminum and plastic have replaced the heavy-weight metals of yesterday. Engines are now more fuel efficient. Ten years ago the average American car got ten miles per gallon to compete in the market. Many of these differences are advantageous to todays driver, but unfortunately these smaller, lighter cars are not as safe if an accident occurs. 这一语篇分别就汽车的体积、重量、节能以及潜在的安全问题等方面进行了比较。从以上各例我们可以看出，英语语篇的三种模式均具有“先抽象，后具体；先综合，后分析；先概括，后细节” 等特点。换句话说，英语语篇的组织和发展呈“直线型”，它通常以一个主题句（topic sentence）开头，直截了当地点明语篇的中心思想，然后在以后各句中发展这一中心思想。对于许多学习英语的中国学生来说，尽管已经掌握了一定的英语词汇及语法规则，但因为缺乏对英语语篇结构的认识，他们常常会无意识地把汉语的语篇结构规则应用在英文写作的过程当中，因而造成了不符合英文语篇结构规律的问题，而这些学生虽然使用英文写作，他们的作文却表现出典型的中国式的思维惯式。这两种思维模式的差异造成了中国学生进行英文写作时的最大问题，即把汉语的思维模式应用在英文写作中。尽管用的是英语的词汇及语法，表现出的却是中国式的思维，这种思维是雅思英语考官所不熟悉的。因此，中国学生最需要英文思维模式的训练。 通过以下两篇文章, 我们可以具体讨论英语和汉语文章, 尤其是英汉议论文的语篇结构的区别。Topic: Today PC games are very popular among teenagers. But some parents consider that these games are not instructive and that teenagers should be kept away from them. What do you think?As one of the products of modern technology, PC games have definitely become an indispensable part of most teenagers lives. Statistics show that teenagers are spending more time and money on entertainment items such as PC games than they did ten years ago. However, in my opinion, although PC games have certain positive effects such as giving teenagers relaxation and activating their imaginations, they have certain negative effects.First, PC games occupy the time when teenagers should be sitting in the classroom or studying in the library. The colorful pictures and vivid characters of PC games are far more exciting than the dull black letters in textbooks. Therefore, addiction to PC games is often accompanied by poor academic work. Furthermore, far from being instructive, some PC games contain violence and pornography, which are extremely harmful for the healthy growth of teenagers. It is said that most juvenile delinquents commit crimes just because their PC game heroes do so in a virtual-reality world.In addition, speaking from the physical aspect, PC games have contributed a lot to failing eyesight among teenagers in recent years.To sum up, despite their entertainment and relaxation values, PC games interfere with the education of teenagers. It would be better if teenagers could use such games in a more rational and controlled way, perhaps under the supervision of their parents.这篇例文是一篇雅思范文，文章采用很典型的直线式思维结构。(1) 首先，这篇文章的结构符合英文写作中最普遍的直线式思维模式。 文章提出了问题，并且在第一段就阐述了作者看法。作者先把要表达的思想概括成全文的立证句（thesis statement）：However, in my opinion, although PC games have certain positive effects such as giving teenagers relaxation and activating their imaginations , they have certain negative effects. 然后每段以主题句 （topic sentence）开始，如: First, PC games occupy the time when teenagers should be sitting in the classroom or studying in the library. (Paragraph 1)Furthermore, far from being instructive, some PC games contain violence and pornography, which are extremely harmful for the healthy growth of teenagers. (Paragraph 2)In addition, speaking from the physical aspect, PC games have contributed a lot to failing eyesight among teenagers in recent years. (Paragraph 3)然后在每一段中举例说明或交代细节。(2) 文章的讨论方式符合英语的习惯。在典型的英文写作中，作者习惯采用非此即彼的思维及表达方式。对于一个问题，他们的答案要么是yes, 要么是no，而不会模棱两可，含糊不清地回答问题。这篇文章的作者在第一段即明确指出：they (PC games) have certain negative effects.(3) 文章具有明确的观点和论据，以及详尽的论证过程。因此，这篇文章符合英语的思维习惯，在本质上，文章采用了英语的篇章结构。Should Students Do Business Or Not?In recent years, doing business is very popular on the campus. More and more college students spend more time doing business. This phenomenon causes a lot of hot argument. Is it right or not? In my opinion, we can not say it is r