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时态时 态一般进行完成完成进行过去did, was/werewas/were doinghad donehad been doing现在do/does, am/is/aream/is/are doinghas/have donehas/have been doing将来will doam/is/are going to doam/is/are to doam/is/are doingdo/doeswill be doingwill have donewill have been doing过去将来would dowould be doingwould have donewould have been doing1. 一般现在时表将来时间、条件状语从句中,事情如果发生在未来,从句中一般用一般现在时表将来。Call me as soon as he arrives.Ill write to you when I get Beijing.表示计划好的将来行动或一系列行动,特别是指旅途中的行动。旅行社人员常这样用:We leave London at 1000 next Tuesday and arrive in Paris at 13002. 询问或引用书籍、通知或新近接到的信件的内容时,常将一般现在时与动词say连用:What does that notice say?It says,No parking4. 进行时态主要只用于表示有意识的动作。因此某些动词通常不用进行时态而只有一种现在时态,即一般现在时。这些动词可以分类如下:A 表示感觉(不由自主的动作)的动词如feel,hear,see,smell;也包括notice和observe(=notic)以及当连词用的feel,B 表示感情和情绪的动词如admire(=respect),adore,appreciate(=value),care for(=like),desire,detest,dislike,fear, hate,like,loathe,love,mind(=care),respect,value,want,wish等。C 表示精神活动的动词如agree,appreciate(=understand),as- sume,believe,expect(=think),feel(=think),feel surecertain,forget,know,mean,perceive,realize,recall,recongnize,recollect,remember,see(=understand),see through someone D 表示拥有的动词如belong,owe,own,possess:F appear(=seem),concern,consist,contain,hold(=contain),keep(=continue),matter,seem,signify,sound(=seemappear)5. 常与完成时态连用的词:since, for, just, already, yet6. 一般过去时与现在完成时的区别:是否与现在时间发生联系I thought you were still on holidayWhen did you get back?I came back last weekHas your term started yet?Yes,it started on Monday7. 将来完成时Youll have been in Beijing next month.语态主动、被动1. 使役动词 make/have/let后跟不定式省略to,而make/have为被动时则不能省略to, let虽然被动也用省略to的不定式,但它一般被allow代替。My mother made me read these books.I was made to read these books.2. 主动表被动的动词:wash, clean, cook, iron, look, cut, sell, read, wear, feel, write, sell, sound, arise.3. 被动表主动的用法:be pleased, get married, be prepared, be occupied.非谓语一、不定式1.不定式的现在式:to do 不定式的现在进行式:to be doing 不定式的完成式: to have done 不定式的完成进行式:to have been doing 不定式的现在式的被动形式:to be done 不定式的完成式的被动形式:to have been done2. 不定式可做主语、宾语、表语、补语、定语、状语(表目的、原因、结果)To lean out of the window is dangerous = It is dangerous to lean out of the window.She agreed to pay 50He asked me how to get the park.He is just about to leaveHe advised me to go home.Do you have any question to ask?I come here to meet you.Im glad to see you.The temperature is so high as to change water into steam.3. 后跟不定式的动词agree, be determined, pretend, aim, endeavor, proceed, appear, fail, promise, arrange, forget, prove, ask, guarantee, refuse, attempt, happen, remember, bother(否定), hesitate, resolve, care(否定), hope, seem choose, learn, swear, claim, long, tend, condescend, manage, threaten, consent, neglect, trouble(否定), decide, offer, try(=attempt), decline, plan, undertake, demand, prepare, volunteer, determine, be prepared, vow be about, be able+afford, do ones best, make anevery effort, make up ones mind(decide)4. 省略to的不定式A. 情态动词B. would rathersooner, rathersooner than,had betterC. 使役动词D. but,except后E. and, or, than连接的两个不定式后面的那一个。F. Why, Why not5. 不定式的复合结构,常用for引出其逻辑主语Its important for us to get there before Sep 1st.二、动名词1. 动名词可做主语、宾语、表语2. 习惯跟动名词做宾语的动词admit dreadanticipate enjoyappreciate escapeavoid excuseconsider fancy(=imagine)defer finishdelay forgivedeny imaginedetest involvedislike keep(=continue)loathe recollectmean(=involve) remember(=recollect)mind(object) resentmiss resistpardon riskpostpone save(sb the trouble of)practise stop(cease)prevent suggest propose (=suggest) understand3. 有些词后可跟不定式,可跟动名词。一般动名词表示已发生过的事情,不定式表示未发生的事情。如forget, remember, regret, stop, begin4. want, need, demand, deserve, require, desire, merit(值得), bear(承受), worth, be worth of后,动名词主动表被动。My bicycle wants repairing= to be repaired.4. 动名词的复合结构逻辑主语无生命用s,代词用物主代词: We are looking forward for Lilys/her coming.无生命用原形:I saw the machine moving.5. 不定式一般表一次性、具体性、目的性。动名词表习惯性、一般性、过去性。Reading is a good habit.三、分词1. 分词有形容词、副词特征,可作定语、表语、补语、状语。现在分词有一般式和完成式,过去分词没有。2. 过去分词表已完成、被动;现在分词表正进行、主动3. 分词的复合结构即独立主格结构分词作状语可以表原因、时间、伴随等,如果分词的主语与主句主语相同则可省略,如果不同,则需带自己的主语称之为独立主格结构。He rode away whistling逻辑主语与分词之间如为主动关系,则用现在分词,若为被动关系,则用过去分词或现在分词完成式的被动。分词与主句谓语动词先后关系。如无先后关系则用粉刺的一般式;如果分词发生在谓语动词之前,则用一般式的完成形式。逻辑主语一般用代词的主格或者名词的普通格。4. 感官动词see, watch, observe, notice, look at, hear, listen to, smell, taste, feel等后跟do表动作的完整性,跟doing表示动作的进行性。I saw him work in the garden.I saw him working in the garden.情态动词must have tocan couldshall should ought towill wouldmay might1. must和have to在否定结构中dont have to表示“不必”,mustnt表示“禁止”You dont have to come here.You mustnt enter that room.must的疑问和回答Must I come here before 8?Yes, you must./ No, you neednt.2. could提出委婉的请求,但回答中不可用couldCould I open the window?Yes, you can.3. 情态动词表推测must, can, could, may, might可表推测,程度依次降低。对现在推测+do/be doingHe may be cooking.He must be in the kitchen.对将来推测+do/be doingHe might be cooking at 12:00.对过去推测+have doneHe must have finished cooking.否定形式He cant have been in Beijing, for I saw him this morning.4. 情态动词(not)+have done 表示与事实相反的情况5. had better 最好Youd better come here before 5.Youd better not drink this.6. would rather 宁愿would ratherthan宁愿。而不愿。would sooner, had rather, had sooner都可表宁愿7. need可做实义动词,可做情态动词。虚拟语气1. If引导的主从复合句从句主句与现在事实相反did/werewould/should/could/might+do与过去事实相反had donewould/should/could/might+have done与将来事实相反were to do/should dowould/should/could/might+do如果省略了if则从句的助动词要提前从而使句子倒装。2. “坚决要命”型带有宾语从句的主句的谓语动词或主句中作宾补的形容词、带有主语从句的主句中做表语的形容词、带有同位语的作主句同位成分的名词、带有表语从句的在主句中做主语的名词如果有表示“坚决要命”(坚持、建议、推荐;决心、决定;要求、重要的、必要;命令、致命的)的含义,从句使用(should)+do的形式的虚拟语气。demanded, essential, necessary, important, ordered, required, vital, advisable, crucial, desirable, (im)proper, inevitable, preferable, urgentadvice, command, demand, desire, importance, motion, necessity, order, proposal, recommendation, request, requirement, suggestionadvise, command, demand, order, require, request, suggest, propose, recommend, insist, persist, 3. 状语从句型1) as if/as though如果主句的谓语动词是现在时,从句的谓语动词用过去时;如果主句谓语动词是过去时,从句则用过去完成时He talks as if he owned this place.He talked as though he had been to Rome.2) lest(唯恐),in case(万一),for fear that(以免)通常主句用祈使句或陈述句,从句常用(should/might/may/can/could)+do。注意的是,一定不能用would do4. 特殊型1) it is (high) time从句中使用过去式。表示该是做某事的时间而实际延后了。2) would rather主语+ would rather/sooner后面跟主语+过去时I would rather you paid cash.3) wishwish(that)+ 主语+ 过去时, 这一结构用于对目前的情况表示遗憾:I wish I knew his address4) suppose, imagine, provide放句首相当于ifSuppose the world were flat.主谓一致1. 就近原则1) There be句型2) or, nor, eitheror, neither nor, not onlybut also2. 意义一致1) 定语从句中关系代词who, which, that作从句主语时,动词单复取决于它指代的名词的数2) all指物时用单数,指人用复数3) the+adj. 作主语指一类人时用复数,指个人或某抽象概念时用单数3. 单数1) 表示时间、重量、长度、数目等复数但表单数意义的词作主语时Six months is not a long time to wait.2) 不定代词作主语时Nobody is there.Anyone is ok.3) 不定式,动名词,从句作主语时4) either of, neither of, none of5) many a, more than oneMany a famous pop star has been ruined by drugs.6) 用and连接但表示同种事物a cup and saucer, fish and chips, a needle and thread7) 表示整体的集体名词The family is a big one.The committee has got an agreement.4. 复数1) 表个体的集体名词The family are all pleased.2) 集体名词或由多部分组成的物体people, police, glasses, pants3) few, many, both, several作主语5. 特殊类1) type/kind/series/form of 取决于这几个词的单复2) 分数/百分数/half/part/portion of, 取决于of后的名词的单复3) the number of 单 vs. a number of 复数附加疑问句一些句子后面的简略的附加成分,用于征求对方的同意或肯定。附加疑问的主语总是用代词。1. 在否定的陈述之后用普通的疑问式:You didnt see him,did you?2. 在肯定的陈述之后用否定疑问式:Peter helped you,didnt he?3. 不规则的用法如:1) Im late, arent I?2) lets带的附加问句中用助动词shall:Lets go,shall we?3) 凡是包含neither,no(形容词),none,no one,nobody,nothing,scarcely,barely,hardly,hardly ever,seldom等词的陈述句,都应看做是否定陈述,后面接一个普通的附加疑问:No salt is allowed,is it?Nothing was said,was it?4) 当句子的主语是anyone,anybody,no one,nobody,none,neither, everybody,everyone,somebody,someone时,在附加疑问中用they:I dont suppose anyone will volunteer,will they?Neither of them complained,did they?No one would object,would they?5) There be句型的附加部分用be (not) there.6) One作主语时附加疑问句的主语用one或youOne cant be too careful, can you?7) 当陈述部分有that引导的宾语从句时,一般应与主句保持对应关系,但如果从句的谓语是suppose, believe, think等时,则与从句中的谓语保持一致,同时注意否定的转移She says that I did it, doesnt she?I dont think he is right about that, is he?8) 当陈述部分由ought to时附加疑问句为ought/should+主语She ought to go by plane, shouldnt she?He oughtnt to go by plane, ought he?9) 当陈述部分有must时l 当must表“必须”时,附加疑问句用mustnt,用mustnt表禁止则附加疑问句中用mustYou must work hard, mustnt you?l 当must表“有必要”时,附加疑问句用needntYou must leave before 10, neednt you?l must表推测时,根据must右面的成分来构成附加疑问句He must be very tired, isnt he?He must have been drunk, hasnt he?10) used to+动词原形时,附加疑问句为used/did+主语, dare, need与其相同He used to smoke 10 cigarettes a day, didnt/usent he?11) 祈使句的附加疑问句l 陈述部分为肯定句时,附加疑问句用will you, wont you或would youGive me that pen, will you?l 陈述部分为否定时,只能用will youDont open that, will you?l Lets go home, shall we?Let us go home, will you?Let me open it, will you?12) 陈述句中有wish,附加疑问句中用may的肯定式I wish to go to Beijing now, may I?附加评论与附加疑问相同,是由助动词构成的,但不同的是在肯定的陈述句之后用普通的附加疑问形式,在否定的陈述句之后用否定的附加疑问形式。附加评论可以加在一个肯定的陈述句之后表示说话者注意到所陈述的事:You saw him,did you?相当于:Oh,so you saw him4. 这种附加语的主要用法在于表示说话人对于一句陈述的反应。通过语调他可以表示他是感兴趣的、不感兴趣的、惊奇的、高兴的、快乐的、愤怒的、怀疑的、不相信的等等。说话人可以用再加一个助动词的办法更有力地表示他的感情:-I borrowed your car-Oh,you did,did you?定语从句定语从句(Attributive Clauses)在句中做定语,修饰一个名词或代词,被修饰的名词,词组或代词即先行词。定语从句通常出现在先行词之后,由关系词(关系代词或关系副词)引出。The lady who is standing behind the counter is my friend.1. 关系词引导定语从句的关联词称为关系词,关系词有关系代词和关系副词。关系代词有that, which, who, whom, whose, as等,绝对没有what;关系副词有where, when, why等。关系词常有3个作用: 连接作用,引导定语从句。 代替主句中的先行词,甚至可能是主句中的一部分或者整个主句。 在定语从句中充当一句子成分。 注:关系代词有主语、宾语之分。一般whom作为宾语。关系代词在从句中作主语,宾语,表语,定语等,关系副词在从句中作地点状语,时间状语,原因状语等。1) who, whom, that这些词代替的先行词是人的名词或代词,who作主语指人,whom作宾语指人,that既可作主语又可作宾语(作宾语可以省略),可以指人也可以指物。在从句中所起作用如下: (1) Is he the man who/that wants to see you? 他就是想见你的人吗?(who/that在从句中作主语) (2) He is the man whom/ that I saw yesterday. 他就是我昨天见的那个人。(whom/that在从句中作宾语) 2) Whose 用来指人或物(只用作定语, 若指物,它还可以同of which互换,指人的时候也可以用of whom 代替) (1) They rushed over to help the man whose car had broken down. 那人车坏了,大家都跑过去帮忙。 (2) Please pass me the book whose/of which) color is green.请递给我那本绿皮的书。 3) which, that它们所代替的先行词是事物的名词或代词,在从句中可作主语、宾语等,作宾语时可以省略,例如: (1) That cup which/that is green is broken。绿色的杯子是破的。(which / that在从句中作主语) (2) The package (which / that) you are carrying is about to come unwrapped. 你拿那个包裹快要散开了。(which / that在从句中作宾语) 3) 关系副词:在句中作状语 关系副词=介词+关系代词 why=for which where=in/ at/ on/ . which (介词同先行词搭配) when=during/ on/ in/ . which (介词同先行词搭配) (1) where是关系副词,用来表示地点的定语从句。 Can you see the school where we met for the first time?(2) when引导定语从句表示时间注值得一提的是,表示时间“time一词的定语从句只用when引导,有时不用任何关系代词,当然也不用that引导。 The time when we got together finally came. I still remember the first time I met her. 我仍然记得我第一次见到她。 (3) why指原因在定语从句中做原因状语 Please tell me the reason why you missed the plane. I dont know the reason why he looks unhappy today. 2. 指代物时多用which,但在下列情况中用that而不用which: 1)先行词是anything, everything, nothing , none等不定代词时; 2)先行词由every, any, all, some, no, little, few, much等修饰时,这时的that常被省略; 3)先行词前有序数词或被形容词最高级修饰时; 4)先行词中既有人又有物时; 5)整个句中前面已有which,who, that时; 6)当先行词为物并作表语时; 7)先行词为one时; 8)先行词同时又被the only, the very, the same修饰时; 3. 非限定性关系从句位于确定的名词之后。因此它对这类名词不作限定性描述,仅对该词作进一步说明作为补充而已。它不同于限定性关系从句,在句中并非必不可少,即使省略也不会引起意义上的混乱。它不同于限定性关系从句之处还在于它与被说明的名词之间用逗号隔开。非限定性关系从句中的关系代词绝对不能省略。这种句子结构相当正规,在书面语中用得比口语中多。e.g. The travellers who knew about the floods took another road知道发大水的那些游客改道走了。e.g. The travellers,who knew about the floods,took another road游客们知道发了大水,都改道走了。The boys who wanted to play football were disappointed when it rainedThe boys,who wanted to play football,were disappointed. 5. 带介词的定语从句The man to whom he is talking is our president.The school in which I studied is a good university.名词/代词+of+which(whom)Mt Tai, the summit of which is hardly seen, is often covered with snow.介词通常位于名词或代词之前。然而,以下两个结构中的介词在非正式英语中有可能会移到句末:1 以介词+whomwhichwhatwhosewhere开头的疑问句:To whom were you talking?(正式的)Who were you talking to?(非正式的)2在关系从句中位于whomwhich之前的介词也可移到从句之末,此时关系代词常被省略:the paople with whom I was travelling(正式的)跟我一起旅行的人们可变为:the people I was travelling with(非正式的)但在短语动词中,介词副词跟在动词之后而不改变位置,因此上述的正规结构是不允许的:the child I was looking after不能改写成afterwhom形式。Which bridge did they blow up?也不能改写为upwhich形式。6. as引导的定语从句l 常与前面的such, the same连用I have the same problem as you.l 用来引导非限制性定语从句,作用与which相同,指的是前面或后面的整个句子所表达的意思,可用在句首或句末。which只能放句中。As might be expected, the response to the question was very mixed.名词性从句共四种:主语从句,表语从句,宾语从句,同位语从句1. 连接词thatwhether/ifwho/whom/whose/what/which/when/where/how/why2. 常见同位语从句先行词belief, conclusion, doubt, evidence, fact, opinion, order, plan, point, suggestion状语从句1. 时间 when, while, as, whenever, as long as, every/each time, hardly/scarcely hadwhen(倒装), no soonerthan, before, after, once, since, till, until, the moment/instant/minute that2. 地点 where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere3. 原因because, as, since, for, in that, now that4. 方式 as, as if/though, like, the way5. 目的so that, in order that, in case, lest for fear that6. 结果 so that, sothat, suchthat, to such an extent that, with the result that7. 让步 although, as, (even) though, even if, ever型,whether or not, while(尽管)注意:倒装结构 形容词+as+主语+系动词Young as they are, the worker cant finish these.原形动词+though+主语+某些情态动词Object though you may, they will go on as usual.8. 条件 if, unless, as(so) long as, supposing, provided/providing, on condition that9. 比较 asas, not so/asas, 比较级than名词1. 名词作定语名词作定语一般用单数 如book store但是也有例外sports meeting, students reading-roomman, woman等做定语是,其单复由所修饰名词的单复决定men workers, women teachers数词加名词作定语时,两词中间一般会用连字符,名词使用单数five-year plan2. 名词所有格规则1) 单数名词及非s结尾的复数名词后加s2) 由s结尾的复数名词后只加3) 不能加s的名词,可以用“名词+of+名词”的结构表示所有关系 the title of the song4) 在表示店铺或者某人的家时加s the barbers, the smiths5) 两名词并列,分别加s表示分别拥有,只有最后一个名词加s则表示共有 Janes and Marys rooms; Jane and Marys room6) 复合名词或短语,s加在最后一个词的词尾。a month or twos absence.冠词1. 不定冠词:用在非特指或文中第一次出现的单数可数名词前,表示一个或者一类人或物A book is for reading.2. 定冠词:与名词连用,表示前文提到过的,或特定的某类事物或人。与单数可数名词连用通常表一类事物,the dollar与复数名词连用指整个群体, They are the teachers of that school. They are teachers of that school.与形容词连用表示一类人与姓氏连用表示一家人3. 零冠词1) 国名人名2) 泛指的复数名词,表示一类人或者事物 Students are persons who learn at school.3) 季节、月份、节日、假期、星期、日期4) 称呼或官职前5) 三餐、乐器、娱乐运动(不包括球类运动,球类运动需加定冠词)6) 两个或两个以上名词并列时7) 交通工具表示前有by表示出行方式时8) 抽象名词 help, beauty, knowledge, mercy4. 冠词的位置1) 当名词前的形容词被so, as, too, how, however, enough等副词修饰时,不定冠词在形容词后;被quite, rather修饰时,不定冠词放其前后均可a rather cold day, rather a cold day2) 在as, though引导的让步状语从句中, 当出现倒装结构时,冠词置于形容词后名词前Brave a man though he is, he trembles at the sight of snakes.3) 定冠词通常放于名词,名词的修饰语前,但如果有all, both, double, half, twice, times等,则放在他们后面All the students形容词与副词比较级1. 原级比较: as+原级+as;not as/so+原级+as注意比较对象必须一致The climate of Shanghai is as mild as that of London.表示倍数常使用“倍数+as+原级+as”This room is twice as hot as that one.This coat costs twice as much as that one.2. 比较级 比较级+than1)比较级前面一般不用the,但有几个特例:l 越。越。,the morethe more的结构l 当表示“两者中比较。的一个”时,用定冠词theOf the two boys, he is the smarter one.l 表示“因而更加”的概念时,用“all/so much/none等副词+the+比较级”,其后不接than从句She felt so much the younger.2) more than结构I like watching TV more than going to the cinema.l 表语中比较两个形容词用morethan连接时,其含义为“与其说不如说”,也可用not so muchasThat little girl is more shy than timid.That little girl is not so much timid as shy.l no+比较级+than如果形容词为褒义,则对前后两对象的否定;反之,则是对前后两对象的肯定Tom is no better than Mike. 但是no more than指“仅仅”,no less than “达之多”3)注意一些天生就是比较级意义的形容词,他们没有比较级,只能跟to连用。superior, inferior, junior, senior3. 最高级最高级可由much, by far, nearly等词修饰否定+比较级可以等于最高级。Ive never seen better place.it的用法1. it通常用来代替事物或指代我们不知道其性别的动物,有时也用来指代婴儿或较年幼的小孩:Where is my map?I left it on the table Look at that birdIt always comes to my windowHer new baby is tinyIt only weights 2 kilos2在下列句子中it可以用于指代人:Ann(on phone):Who is that?Who is it?Bill:Its meIs that Tom over there?No,its Peter3. it用于表示时间、距离、天气、温度和潮水的说法中:What time is it?It is sixWhats the date?Its the third of MarchHow far
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