中国机械设计的历史(英文).docx

(Huuzhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan)This paper examines the history of Chinas machine design methods and its status quo First of all, it discusses machine design methods in ancient China.(i )The design idea of creation by the intelligent and exposition by the ingenious. (2)The design principle of the dependence of workmanship on criteria. (3)A macroscopic view of the objectof design. (4)The design method of manufacture emphasizing shape. (S)Technolog-ical requirements on excellent material and consummate skill. Second, it discussesmachine design ideas in ancient China.(1)The system idea inidea of machine design.(3)The idea of standardizationof automation in machine design. Finally, it discussesof the theory of machine design in China.machine design. (2)Thein machine design. (4)The ideathe status quo and a look ahead本文首先考察中国的机器设计方法和其现状的历史，论述了中国古代的机器设计方法。() i由智能创造和博览会通过巧妙的设计理念。()2做工依赖标准设计原则。( 3宾语设计的宏观视野。(4制造强调形状的设计方法。(S)技术要求优良的材料和精湛的技艺。第二，它中国古代设计思想。(1机械设计系统的想法迥异于。(3在机械设计中的标准化自动化的想法。最后，它的设计的机械设计理论。(2登机设计。(4国策现状和看前方一、 导言与它在科学和技术、 中国机械工程的伟大成就持有世界文明史上极其重要的地位。整个长叶 (907-1279),I. INTRODUCTION With its great achievements in science and tech-nology, Chinas mechanical engineering holds anextremely important position in the history of worldcivilization. Throughout the long years of history,the Chinese people have worked innumerable won-dens of machines. It has been found that the princi-Ales ofmechanics, theory of vibration, acoustics andoptics were all ingeniously applied in a number ofinstruments, be they the bronze chariots and tumacottahorses and their accessories excavated from thetomb of Qin Shi Huang, the First Emperor of Qin(259-210 B. C.), or the set of chimes excavatedfrom the tomb of Marquis Yi of the Zeng State atSuizhou, or the armillary sphere and seismographdeveloped in 132 A. D. by Zhang Heng, or the bronzebasin and the Tower for the Water-Powered Sphereand Globe.2 The skillful design, peculiar conceptand exquisite mechanical arts have long since beenapprovingly spoken of. In particular, in the won-drously plentiful ancient literature one can findrecords of a diversity of methods of machine designand design ideas. These historical documents are a介绍。在科学和技术伟大的成就重要性,中国机械工程中占有在世界历史上极其重要的地位文明。在多年的历史,中国人民曾无数赢得了-洞穴的机器。人们已经发现,princi -爱丽斯ofmechanics、振动理论、音响光学都巧妙的应用工具,是青铜战车和tumacotta他们马及其配件的挖掘秦始皇的陵墓,秦朝的第一个皇帝(公元前259 - 210),或者套编钟的出土曾侯乙墓的曾庆红状态”随州、浑天仪和地动仪开发的公元132年,张衡、铜牌盆地和水电领域的塔Globe.2巧妙的设计,独特的概念机械艺术早已被玲珑赞许地说。特别是,在赢得了-drously可以找到丰富的古代文学记录的机械设计方法的多样性和设计思想。这些历史文献great cultural treasurehouse. For instance, in suchbooks as Zhou Li, Kao Gong Ji3 (the ArtificersRecord in the Rites of Zhou) and The Book of MoTu; of the Qin Dynasty in the remote past, Xin YiXiang Fa Yaos, (Contemporary Essentials of Sphereand Globe) of the Song Dynasty (907-1279), TheBook of Farniing of the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368)and Tian Gong Kai Wu (Exploitation of the Workof Nature) written by Song Yingxine of the MingDynasty(1368-1644), detailed descriptions of ma-chine design methods and ideas in ancient China canbe found. With the penetrating discussions andsagacious remarks contained therein, these docu-menu radiate with the cream of Chinese culture.They have left deep i mpressions on the history of thedevelopment of science and technology worldwideand exerted a far-reaching influence on the advancesof mechanical engineering in China and even theworld as a whole. When we look back on theexpositions concerning methods of machine designin ancient and medieval Chinese literature, andinvestigate and draw on the creativity and confi-deuce of our ancestors in achieving success in sci-ence and technology that are practically peerlessanywhere, there is no doubt we wiii benefit from ourpredecessors while promoting the advances of thetheories of machine design in present-day China.(I. A REVIEW The history of design is almost as long as that of-ncu hirnsclf. By engineering is meant performingthe conception and planning of engineering andcehnological systems and turning the imaginationinto realistic technological activities and practice.Machine design is a vital component of mechanicalengineering and the foundation of machine build-ing. The earliest monograph that presents a system-atic exposition on the ideas and methods of machinedesign was the book Rites of the Zhuu 1)vnastv thatappeared in book form following the eastwardprove of the imperial court of Zhou. The section KaoGong Ji in the book of Rite.c of the Zfruu Ovrmsw isnot merely an important record of the engineeringpractice and departments of technology. More inr-portant, the many ancient materials it contains makeit an invaluable monograph that treats at length ideasand methods of machine design in ancient China.According to Joseph Needham(I 90t)一I y95 ), KauC:ur Ji, Zhuu Li is the most important documentfor the study of ancient Chinese technology，:、viewheld by the scientific community. 1. Thf design idea of creation如the iute(lilentcrnc! e_rosition bathe ingenious For engineering design in ancient China, whatwas emphasized ahove everything else was thedesign idea of creation by the intelligent. Therecords in Kao Gong Ji show that China entered theconscious design period in the remote past. In partic-ular, the tendency towards the specialization ofvarious production skills as described in this docu-ment shows that during the Qin period, the design ofproducts and practice of engineering technologywere both pertorrned on detinite theories. Moreo-ver, both the design method and design process wererepresented in the form of state-formulated laws andrules, based on which design and manufacture werecarried out using mathematical approaches through-;ut the entire process. It is stated in the Introduction to Kau Gunk Jithat the intelligent create and the skilled expound,and their craft was handed down from generation togeneration for their descendants to tbllow. Theintelligent here mentioned refers to the wise, thatis, masterhands with a d.finite fund oftechnologicaland professional skills, or the designers. Here creat-ing means making aornething new or original. It isthus quite clear that Kao Gong Ji regards design asa creative activity. It is a process of putting intopractice creative thinking aimed at meeting specificdemands within a limited time-space range andunder given material conditions. The statement theskilled expound and their craft was handed downfrom generation to generation shows that designand manufacture were already well defined anddistinguished from each other in those days. Meanwhile, it is stressed in the Introduction toKuo Gong Ji that whatever product is turned out isthe outcome of coordination among different speci-alities and a result of collective efforts. A typicalexample is the manufacture of a carriage whichinvolves nearly all branches of craftsmanship. 2. The design principle of the dependence ofworkmanship on criteria Engineering design is an activity with the pur-pose of meeting social demands by relying on sci-ence and technological know-how accumulated inthe development of civilization. The specializationof the production departments in society aitd thestandardization of production technology are im-portant scales for measuring the advances of scienceand technology. A statement in Rites for Youths9 inThe Book Rites 0“a craftsman should be familiarwith the criteria and standards in the process ofmanufacture indicates that the design and produc-tion of all kinds of products during the Qin Dynastystrictly abided by definite technological rules andregulations. What is discussed in detail in Kuo Gong Ji is thetopic on criteria for the manufacturing process of allcraftsmen. The statement that a craftsman shouldbe familiar with the criteria and standards in theprocess of manufacture includes acquaintance withthe correct use of the compasses and angle squareas well as standards for structure-related parame-ters. The compasses and angle square were exten-sively used in the design and production of articlesduring the Qin Dynasty. It is stated in ;Will ofKeaven A”of The Book of Master Mo that hold-i ng the compasses and angle square, a vehicle wheel-maker can measure the shapes of all square andround things and decide what shape is correct andwhat is incorrect. Sizi said, In the old days anartificer by the name of Chui invented the com-passes, the square, the level gage and the rope, sothat all the other craftsmen were enabled to followhis example. These records show the roles playedby the compasses and angle square during the Qinperiod. The criteria for dimension-related itemsrefers to the choice of materials and the standards forthe material to be used, as well as structural param-eters. For instance, in Kao Gong Ji not only are thegrades of carriages given, but also the dimensions ofall grades of carriages are specified. In Ye Shi4 (amonograph on metallurgy) the composition of al-loys for making various kinds of articles is given, orwhat is also known as six copper-tin proportioningfor making bronze articles. The standards formaterials to be used for making bronze articles andthe proportioning of raw materials for bronze arescientifically summarized. As it was, the alloys formaking most of the bronze articles unearthed wereproduced in accordance with this regulation andstandard. Speaking of a craftsman should be familiarwith the criteria and standards in the process ofmanufacture, it should be noted that products hadto be examined according to regulations so as toensure the quality of the product designed. It isrecorded in Yu RenS, (carriage makers) in KaoGong Ji that The round shape should conform to acircle drawn with the compasses, the square shape toa square drawn with an angle square, the verticalshould be perpendicular to the ground surface froma suspended rope and the horizontal should beparallel to the water surface. The vertical shouldlook as if it grows out of the earth. What intersect andlink are like branches and twigs attached to thetrunk. All this is a concrete manifestation of crafts-manship conforming to criteria. It is recorded in theImperial System in the Book of Rites6 that Thosearticles that are not up to requirement shall not besold on the market. Those weapons that are not up torequirement shall not be sold on the market. All thisshows that a strict checking system was already animportant component of product design. 3. A macroscopic view of the object of design The purpose of design is to turn out new prod-ucts. Such an activity must be made to adapt to theenvironment. This requires that a designer not onlyconsider the object of design itself but also take allrelationships relevant to the product into account.The idea and method of considering an object ofdesign macroscopically were first proposed in KaoGong Ji. The Introduction of which states that asatisfactory product can be turned out only when afavorable climate and geographical position, excel-lent material and consummate skills are all availa-ble. Approaching an object of design from the highplane of favorable climate and geographical posi-tion, carefully selecting rational manufacturing tech-nology and taking into consideration the socialfunctions of a product as well as the social estatesystem一this is one of the characteristics of ancientChinas concept of design. As a craftsman, it isnecessary for him to understand the importance ofclimate and geographical position, that is, eventhough the material may be excellent and skillsconsummate, the product will still not be satisfacto-ry if the climate and geographical position are notfavorable. In addition, he should understand thechanges the material environment may undergo.With regard to the examination of the season as oneof the influencing factors for consideration in de-sign, Guo Yu, Qi Yu, (the State of Qi in Discourseson the ancient feudal States) expressly proposed thatthe four seasons of a year be taken into account. To take a macroscopic view of an object ofdesign, it is necessary for a designer to be capable ofdistinguishing between what is curved and what isstraight, what is square and what is round, as well asof properly using copper, wood, leather, jade andearth to make articles. According to the Introduc-tion to Kao Gong Ji, One who is capable of exam-fining the curved and the straight and the square andthe round, the obverse and the reverse sides of anobject, as well as the trend of the times, is called acraftsman. To repeat, the curved and straight lines,the obverse and reverse sides, and the trend of thetimes are placed on a par with each other for exam-ination. A material may be curved or straight, thelatter case being known without examining whilethe inspection of what is curved will enable a cralts-man to know the grain or texture of a material. Thetrend may be obverse or reverse and what is reversecannot be used to replace what is obverse. After thetrend is examined and determined, the correct ar-rangements for using a material can be made accord-ing to its grain or texture. Only in this way will it bepossible to attain the design objective of excellentmaterial and consummate skill. 4. The design method of manufacture emphasiz-ing the shape No engineering design can be carried out with-out a drawing, and the design drawing is an indispen-sable technical document for guiding production.Performing design by means of drawing is an impor-taut mark of the stage of empirical design.The celebrated saying an article-maker empha-sizes the shape found in the Appendix A to TheBook of Changes implies that when manufacturingan article or an implement it is necessary to refer toits shape or drawing. There are numerous recordsconcerning drawings and graphs in Zhou Li, (TheBook of Rites of the Zhou Dynasty), which is thefirst book of its kind in ancient or medieval China togive a systematic explanationof the application ofgraphics. No matter whether it is an official incharge of mining as mentioned in Di Guun Si Tuyof The Rites of the Zhou Dynasty who is responsi-ble for prospecting in the mining area beforehand,making drawings for the miners and conducting atour to see to it that prohibitions are observed or itis an official in charge of suburban affairs who,using maps to supervise farming and open up thewasteland, has county towns built and boundarylines delimited or an official in charge of mauso-leums as mentioned in Chun Guun Zong Bo= whodefines the range of tombs and draws the plan of agraveyard using drawings to specify standards forthe size and height of a tomb, it can be seen that afar back as 2,000 or 3,000 years ago, centered on theapplication of graphs or drawings, the transmissionand storage of information and pattern managementand filing converged. Performing design and com-pleting the construction of a project by means ofdrawings was already a mature design method inthose days. In addition, the making of different ki ndsof drawings during the Zhou Dynasty(B. C. 1 1 thcentury-256 B.C.) was as a rule based on measure-ment. A design scheme was regarded as a formaldrawing only after it was examined. Drawings forproduction purposes were duplicated without ex-ception with the copies put on file in the governmentdepartment concerned. These procedures are all inconformity with the general method of modernengineering design and the principle of manage-ment and custody. 5. Technological requirements on e.roellentmaterial and consummate skills The purpose of design is to guarantee the func-tions of the product and its manufacture, as well asto develop a technical system of good performance,low cost, and optimal price. The technological requirements for excellentmaterial and consummate skill are specificallyproposed in the Introduction to Kao Gong Ji. Byexcellent material we mean material of the bestquality while consummate skill implies ingeniouswork. With regard to the design objective of excel-lent material and consummate skill, there were stricttechnical standards for the manufacture of a specificproduct. For instance, as stipulated in Kao Gong Ji,there are three steps for bringing an axle up torequirements, that is, First, it should be made ofexcellent material; second, it should be enduring,and third, it should be flexible. Excellent materialand durability refer to the raw material and itsquality, while flexibility implies that when mountedon a carnage to operate, the machined axle will notget stuck while rotating as its fit clearance with thehub is appropriate. Only with the three precondi-lions satisfied will the material be regarded asexcellent and the planned design objective attained. On the other hand, the design objective of skillfulcraft is also manifested in the product turned out inaccordance with specifications, which should havean optimum structural shape with the overall func-lions guaranteed. A carriage made according todesign requirements and running great distancesall day long should not make even elderly riderssitting on the left side feel tired. Only when thisrequirement is met shall we be able to say that theobjective of skillful craft is attained. There is astatement in Mo Tzu Jie Yongz (on practicing econ-omy by Mo