Economies of scale 规模经济.docx

Economies of scale规模经济In microeconomics, economies of scale are the cost advantages that enterprises obtain due to size, output, or scale of operation, with cost per unit of output generally decreasing with increasing scale as fixed costs are spread out over more units of output.在微观经济学，规模经济是产出的企业由于大小、 输出或经营规模，以每单位产量不断增加的固定的成本遍布多个单位规模普遍降低成本获得的成本优势。Often operational efficiency is also greater with increasing scale, leading to lower variable cost as well.经常运作效率也是随着规模，导致较低的可变成本以及更大的。Economies of scale apply to a variety of organizational and business situations and at various levels, such as a business or manufacturing unit, plant or an entire enterprise. For example, a large manufacturing facility would be expected to have a lower cost per unit of output than a smaller facility, all other factors being equal, while a company with many facilities should have a cost advantage over a competitor with fewer.规模经济适用于各种各样的组织和业务情况和业务或制造单元、 厂房或整个企业等不同层面。例如，一个大型的制造工厂，将预计有较低的成本，每单位产出比一个较小的设施，所有其他因素都是平等的虽然有很多设施公司应具有较少的竞争对手的成本优势。Some economies of scale, such as capital cost of manufacturing facilities and friction loss of transportation and industrial equipment, have a physical or engineering basis.一些经济体的规模，如制造设施的资本成本和摩阻损失的运输和工业设备，有一个物理或工程的基础。The economic concept dates back to Adam Smith and the idea of obtaining larger production returns through the use of division of labor. Diseconomies of scale are the opposite.经济概念日期追溯到亚当 斯密和获得较大的生产的想法返回通过劳动分工。规模不经济则相反。Economies of scale often have limits, such as passing the optimum design point where costs per additional unit begin to increase. Common limits include exceeding the nearby raw material supply, such as wood in the lumber, pulp and paper industry. A common limit for low cost per unit weight commodities is saturating the regional market, thus having to ship product uneconomical distances. Other limits include using energy less efficiently or having a higher defect rate.规模经济往往有一些限制例如通过优化设计点，每增加一单位成本开始增加。常见的限制包括超过附近的原材料供应，木材中的木材、 纸浆和造纸工业等。常见的限制为每单位重量商品低成本饱和区域市场，因而不必船舶产品不合算的距离。其他限制包括有效地使用能源较少或拥有更高的缺陷率。Large producers are usually efficient at long runs of a product grade (a commodity) and find it costly to switch grades frequently. They will therefore, avoid specialty grades even though they have higher margins. Often smaller (usually older) manufacturing facilities remain viable by changing from commodity grade production to specialty products.大型生产商通常有效，在长距离的产品等级 （商品），发现它昂贵的频繁切换的成绩。因此，他们会避免专业职系，即使他们有更高的利润。通过改变从商品级生产特殊的产品，通常较小 （通常是较旧的） 制造设施保持活力。Overview概述The simple meaning of economies of scale is doing things more efficiently with increasing size or speed of operation. Economies of scale often originate with fixed capital, which is lowered per unit of production as design capacity increases. In wholesale and retail distribution, increasing the speed of operations, such as order fulfillment, lowers the cost of both fixed and working capital. Other common sources of economies of scale are purchasing (bulk buying of materials through long-term contracts), managerial (increasing the specialization of managers), financial (obtaining lower-interest charges when borrowing from banks and having access to a greater range of financial instruments), marketing (spreading the cost of advertising over a greater range of output in media markets), and technological (taking advantage of returns to scale in the production function). Each of these factors reduces the long run average costs (LRAC) of production by shifting the short-run average total cost (SRATC) curve down and to the right.规模经济的简单意义做事更高效地与规模日益扩大或操作速度。规模经济往往起源与固定资本，这每个单位的生产为设计容量的增加而降低。在批发和零售的分布，提高速度的操作，如订单执行、 降低固定成本和营运资本。其他常见的规模经济来源所购买的 （批量购买材料通过长期合同），管理 （增加专业化的管理人员）、 金融 （获得低利息费用时从银行借贷和获得更广泛的金融工具），市场营销 (输出媒体市场在更大范围内传播的广告费用)，和技术 （利用生产函数规模收益）。其中每个因素减少转移短期平均总成本 （SRATC） 曲线向下和向右而生产的长期运行平均费用 （LRAC）。Economies of scale is a practical concept that may explain real world phenomena such as patterns of international trade or the number of firms in a market. The exploitation of economies of scale helps explain why companies grow large in some industries. It is also a justification for free trade policies, since some economies of scale may require a larger market than is possible within a particular countryfor example, it would not be efficient for Liechtenstein to have its own car maker, if they only sold to their local market. A lone car maker may be profitable, but even more so if they exported cars to global markets in addition to selling to the local market. Economies of scale also play a role in a natural monopoly.规模经济是一个实际的概念，也许可以解释现实世界现象，如国际贸易格局或公司在一个市场的数目。规模经济剥削有助于解释为什么公司成长大的一些行业。这也是自由贸易政策的理由，因为一些规模经济可能需要更大的市场，不是在某一特定国家内是可能 例如，它不会有效的列支敦士登有它自己的汽车制造商，如果他们只卖给他们当地的市场。孤独的汽车制造商可能是盈利的但即使如果他们出口汽车到全球市场除了卖给本地市场更是如此。规模经济也发挥了作用，在自然垄断。The management thinker and translator of the Toyota Production System for service, Professor John Seddon, argues that attempting to create economies by increasing scale is powered by myth in the service sector. Instead, he believes that economies will come from improving the flow of a service, from first receipt of a customers demand to the eventual satisfaction of that demand. In trying to manage and reduce unit costs, firms often raise total costs by creating failure demand. Seddon claims that arguments for economy of scale are a mix of a) the plausibly obvious and b) a little hard data, brought together to produce two broad assertions, for which there is little hard factual evidence.管理思想家和丰田生产系统的服务，教授约翰塞登，译者认为试图通过扩大规模创造规模经济由服务部门中的神话。相反，他认为经济将来自提高流动服务，从第一次收到的最终满意的这种需求的客户的需求。在试图管理和降低单位成本，公司经常通过创建失败需求提高总成本。塞登声称规模经济的理由是切实的明显现象和小的硬数据的混合，聚集在一起来产生两个宽泛的论点，有确凿的事实证据。Physical and engineering basis物理和工程基础Some of the economies of scale recognized in engineering have a physical basis, such as the square-cube law, by which the surface of a vessel increases by the square of the dimensions while the volume increases by the cube. This law has a direct effect on the capital cost of such things as buildings, factories, pipelines, ships and airplanes.认识到在工程中的规模经济的有些是物理的基础，例如广场多维数据集的法律，其中一艘船的表面增加尺寸的平方而体积增大了该多维数据集。这项法律已经直接影响到诸如建筑物、 工厂、 管道、 船舶和飞机的资本成本。In structural engineering, the strength of beams increases with the cube of the thickness.工程结构中，梁的强度随厚度的多维数据集。Drag loss of vehicles like aircraft or ships generally increases less than proportional with increasing cargo volume, although the physical details can be quite complicated. Therefore, making them larger usually results in less fuel consumption per ton of cargo at a given speed.车辆阻力损失如飞机或船只一般小于成比例地增加随货物体积大、 虽然物理细节可以相当复杂。因此，使他们更大的通常导致每吨货物在指定的速度降低燃料消耗。Heat losses from industrial processes vary per unit of volume for pipes, tanks and other vessels in a relationship somewhat similar to the square-cube law.从工业生产过程的热损失每单位体积管、 坦克和其它船只在某种程度上类似于平方 / 立方定律的关系会发生变化。Capital and operating cost资本和运营成本Overall costs of capital projects are known to be subject to economies of scale. A crude estimate is that if the capital cost for a given sized piece of equipment is known, changing the size will change the capital cost by the 0.6 power of the capacity ratio (the point six power rule).整体资本项目的成本是受规模经济。一项粗略估计是设备的如果一块给定大小的资本成本设备的已知的更改大小会改变资本成本容量比 （0.6权力规则） 的 百分之六十。In estimating capital cost, it typically requires an insignificant amount of labor, and possibly not much more in materials, to install a larger capacity electrical wire or pipe having significantly greater capacity.在资本成本的估算，它通常需要微不足道的劳动，和可能没有很多的材料，安装更大容量的电线或管有明显更大的容量。The cost of a unit of capacity of many types of equipment, such as electric motors, centrifugal pumps, diesel and gasoline engines, decreases as size increases. Also, the efficiency increases with size.许多类型的设备，如电动马达，离心泵，柴油和汽油引擎，容量单位成本常会随大小增加。此外，效率随着规模而增加。Crew size and other operating costs for ships, trains and airplanes乘员组大小和其他船舶、 火车和飞机的运营成本Operating crew size for ships, airplanes, trains, etc., does not increase in direct proportion to capacity. (Operating crew consists of pilots, co-pilots, navigators, etc. and does not include passenger service personnel.) Many aircraft models were significantly lengthened or stretched to increase payload.经营乘员组大小为船舶、飞机、火车等，不会增加能力成正比。（运行的机组人员包括飞行员、 副驾驶员、 领航员等和不包括客运服务人员）。许多飞机模型显著延长或者拉伸以增加有效载荷。Many manufacturing facilities, especially those making bulk materials like chemicals, refined petroleum products, cement and paper, have labor requirements that are not greatly influenced by changes in plant capacity. This is because labor requirements of automated processes tend to be based on the complexity of the operation rather than production rate, and many manufacturing facilities have nearly the same basic number of processing steps and pieces of equipment, regardless of production capacity.许多制造设施，尤其是那些使散状物料如化学品、 精炼的石油产品、 水泥、 纸张有劳动力的需求，极大地不在植物能力影响的变化。这是因为劳动力需求的自动化过程倾向于基于复杂的操作，而不是生产速率，和很多生产设施有几乎相同的基本处理步骤的数目和设备，而不管生产容量。Economical use of byproducts节约使用的副产品Karl Marx noted that large scale manufacturing allowed economical use of products that would otherwise be waste. Marx cited the chemical industry as an example, which today along with petrochemicals, remains highly dependent on turning various residual reactant streams into salable products. In the pulp and paper industry it is economical to burn bark and fine wood particles to produce process steam and to recover the spent pulping chemicals for conversion back to usable form.卡尔 马克思指出这样大规模的制造允许经济使用的产品，否则会浪费。马克思作为一个例子，它今天与石油化工、 仍然高度依赖变成畅销产品的各种残余反应流引化工行业。在纸浆和造纸工业是经济燃烧树皮和木材微粒产生的工艺蒸汽并收回废浆化学物质转换回可用的形式。Economies of scale and returns to scale规模经济和规模收益Economies of scale is related to and can easily be confused with the theoretical economic notion of returns to scale. Where economies of scale refer to a firms costs, returns to scale describe the relationship between inputs and outputs in a long-run (all inputs variable) production function. A production function has constant returns to scale if increasing all inputs by some proportion results in output increasing by that same proportion. Returns are decreasing if, say, doubling inputs results in less than double the output, and increasing if more than double the output. If a mathematical function is used to represent the production function, and if that production function is homogeneous, returns to scale are represented by the degree of homogeneity of the function. Homegeneous production functions with constant returns to scale are first degree homogeneous, increasing returns to scale are represented by degrees of homogeneity greater than one, and decreasing returns to scale by degrees of homogeneity less than one.规模经济息息相关，又很容易被与回报规模的理论经济概念相混淆。在规模经济是指一家公司的成本、 规模收益描述内长时间运行 （所有输入变量） 输入和输出之间的关系生产函数。生产函数具有规模如果按一定的比例增加所有的输入输出增加导致固定收益由那相同的比例。降低如果说，增加一倍的投入在小于双输出中，结果返回，并增加如果超过两倍的输出。如果一个数学函数用来表示生产函数，并且如果该生产函数是均匀的规模收益由函数的同质性程度。均匀生产函数与规模不断收益是首度均匀，规模收益递增由程度的同质性大于1，并减少返回到规模由均匀性小于 1 度。If the firm is a perfect competitor in all input markets, and thus the per-unit prices of all its inputs are unaffected by how much of the inputs the firm purchases, then it can be shown that at a particular level of output, the firm has economies of scale if and only if it has increasing returns to scale, has diseconomies of scale if and only if it has decreasing returns to scale, and has neither economies nor diseconomies of scale if it has constant returns to scale. In this case, with perfect competition in the output market the long-run equilibrium will involve all firms operating at the minimum point of their long-run average cost curves (i.e., at the borderline between economies and diseconomies of scale).如果公司是一个完美的竞争者，在所有的投入市场，因此所有的输入的每个单位价格未受影响由多少投入该公司购买，然后可以显示在某一水平的输出，该公司具有规模经济的当且仅当它具有规模收益递增，而且有规模不经济，当且仅当它具有降低规模收益具有既不经济也不是规模不经济，如果它有规模恒定收益。在这种情况下，与完善的市场竞争中产出长期均衡将涉及它们的长期平均成本曲线 (即在经济和规模不经济的分界线） 最低点运作的所有公司。If, however, the firm is not a perfect competitor in the input markets, then the above conclusions are modified. For example, if there are increasing returns to scale in some range of output levels, but the firm is so big in one or more input markets that increasing its purchases of an input drives up the inputs per-unit cost, then the firm could have diseconomies of scale in that range of output levels. Conversely, if the firm is able to get bulk discounts of an input, then it could have economies of scale in some range of output levels even if it has decreasing returns in production in that output range.如果，然而，该公司不是一个完美的竞争对手在投入市场，然后修改了上述结论。例如，如果有在一定范围内的产出水平，规模报酬递增，但公司是如此之大的一个或多个输入市场，增加其购买的输入驱动器的输入每单位成本，那么该公司可能在该范围内的产出水平有规模不经济。相反，如果该公司能够获得批量折扣的输入，然后它可能有规模经济在一定范围内的产出水平即使它具有降低生产中的输出范围的回报。The literature assumed that due to the competitive nature of reverse auction, and in order to compensate for lower prices and lower margins, suppliers seek higher volumes to maintain or increase the total revenue. Buyers, in turn, benefit from the lower transaction costs and economies of scale that result from larger volumes. In part as a result, numerous studies