耶鲁大学心理学导论(第八课).doc

心理学导论第八课我要用一个不同的演示Ill begin the class officially来正式开始这堂课的内容with a different sort of demonstration.我想给你们看一个在现实中进行的I want to just show you one of the change-Blindness studies 变化盲视实验that has been done in the real world.这些录像带没有公开发行And these videotapes are not available publicly.我们在网上找到了这些录像带 We get them from the web 然后用了一些java脚本来打开and see them as little java scripts.这是丹尼尔西蒙斯So, this is one of the first studies done在康奈尔大学时所做的早期研究之一by Dan Simons when he was at cornell.他当时的导师是如今在我们系任教的And his adviser at the time was our Frank Keil,弗兰克凯尔Whos now in our department.这就是他的研究So, heres the study.人们根本没有注意到And you dont notice it.变化盲视是实验科学家们Change blindness is one of the more striking phenomena和心理学家们所发现的discovered by laboratory scientists较为引人注意的现象之一and by psychologists.但是请大家But its important to realize,抛开对大猩猩的惊奇to get away from the sort of surprise of the gorilla,以及人们很难看到闪过物体的and the fact that its hard to see the flickering,这个事实the object thats flickering,理解这之中隐含的寓意是非常重要的and appreciate the big moral of this,因为我觉得 这里的寓意because the big moral of this is actually, I think,实际上是非常惊人 也是十分重要的striking and quite important.你觉得你正在感知着这个世界You think right now that youre perceiving the world.我在这里俯视你们 I look down on you 觉得自己对每个人的位置都了如指掌and I think I have a whole sense of where everybody is.我无法看清坐在后面的每位同学I cant see everybody perfectly in back.因为你们离我太远 有点模糊 Youre kind of far away and blurry但我还是能感知到周围的世界but theres a sense in which I have a world around me.同样 如果我把眼睛闭上几秒钟Similarly, if Im to close my eyes for a second,一切照旧everything just remains我大概能够记起一些原先的事物and I could sort of remember some of the things that are there.刚才的声音是我做的一个很好的声音定位Thats really good sound localization by me.你们从下面往讲台上看So youre looking up觉得自己感知并记住了这个场景and you think you have a sense of the world both in perception and memory.而变化盲视实验则表明事实并非如此The change-blindness experiment suggested this isnt true.变化盲视实验表明The change-blindness experiment suggests that如果你盯着我看一小会if you look at me for a second 而在这段时间里and during that second你所有的同学 包括坐在你旁边的同学all of your classmates change positions,都换了座位including those next to you,你是很难注意到的you are extremely unlikely to notice.变化盲视实验表明The change-blindness experiment suggests如果你将目光从我身上挪到那边去that if you turn your eyes away from me towards there停留片刻 然后再看回来for a second and turn back,即便我换了一身完全不同的衣服and Im dressed entirely differently,你也不会注意到you wouldnt notice.除非你有意识地告诉自己The exceptions would be if you told yourself consciously,记住这个人的衣着remember what this guy is wearing;他穿的是这样那样的衣服Hes wearing this, that and the other.但如果你并不是有意识地去观察But if you dont do it consciously那你就不会注意到了youll lose it,通常情况下 这是没问题的and usually this is okay.通常来说没什么问题Usually, its okay是因为你的记忆系统和视觉系统because your memory and your visual system会应用一个关于宇宙万物的基本事实exploits a basic fact about the universe,这个事实就是which is that多数事物在大部分的时间里是保持不变的most things stay the same most of the time.我转头的时候I dont have to explicitly remember并不需要明确地记住that youre over there你是在那里的when I turn my head for a second因为无论如何 你还是会在那里because youll be over there in any case.你不需要拥有关于世界的准确表征You dont need to hold precise representations of the world.所以只有在某些特定情况下And so you only notice it你才会注意到这些变化in certain clever circumstances.一种特定情况是心理学家们One sort of clever circumstance is when psychologists change reality在变化盲视实验中改变现实场景as in the change-blindness studies.另一种情况就是电影A second sort of circumstance is in movies.人们在制作那些含有切换画面的电影时So, one of the big surprises会惊奇地发现when people started making movies involving cuts想要连续地理解电影中的一切was it is extremely difficult是极其困难的to get everything continuously right.你要非常努力才能注意到这一点And you need to work very hard to notice.电影里到处都是这种一致性错误So, theres all of these continuity errors that creep up into movies而你必须得像电影爱好者那样and you have to be a film buff把错误记录下来and writing it down才会注意到这种情况to even notice this.所以变化盲视在总体上所表达的寓意便是And the overall moral here then is 你对现实的感知程度远比你想象中的that your perception of reality is a lot more sparse, a lot more limited,更加稀少 也更加有限than you might think it is.这就是我们在上节课的最后所讲的内容So, this is where we were at the end of last class.我们讲了不同种类的记忆We were talking about the different sorts of memories.感觉记忆 即你对当下的所见所闻Sensory memory, which is the sort of fraction of a second 在瞬间的感觉残留of sensory residue of what youre hearing and what youre seeing,工作记忆 短时记忆 working memory, short-term memory, 然后是长时记忆and then long-term memory.我们上节课讲了And we talked last class外界信息是如何进入感觉记忆about how things get into sensory memory,又是如何进入工作记忆的into working memory,以及注意在其中所起到的作用the role of attention.实际上 对变化盲视的各种研究And in fact, the change-blindness studies are actually just studies正是在探查信息如何从感知进入意识of how something gets from your senses to your consciousness以及哪些信息能够进入意识 哪些不能and what does and what doesnt.现在我想讲一下Now I want to move to the distinction 工作记忆 短时记忆between working memory, short-term memory, 和长时记忆之间的区别and long-term memory.最明显的区别便是储存容量上的差异Now, the obvious distinction is actually just in fact-is storage differences.长时记忆 简称LTM So, long-term memory or LTM 拥有巨大的储存能力has a huge storage capacity.这种记忆很像你的电脑硬盘This is your memory like the hard drive of your computer.它是会伴随你一生的记忆This is the memory you walk around with.比如 它存储着所有的英语单词It includes all the words in English, just for example,大约六到八万个单词60 to 80,000 words.它存储着你对所遇之人的印象It includes everybody youve ever met,各种的语言 面孔 故事 位置languages, faces, stories, locations,童谣 歌曲 以及电视节目nursery rhymes, songs, TV programs.没有人知道它的存储容量有多大Nobody knows the storage.你能记住所有曾经发生在你身上的事情It is not true that you remember everything 这个观点并不正确that has ever happened to you.没有任何理由能够使你相信Theres no reason to believe这个观点是正确的that this is true.但与此同时At the same time though, 你在大脑中的长时记忆里储存了海量信息you have a huge amount stored in your brain in long-term storage事实上 没有人-and nobody actually记忆的储存容量肯定是有限的It has to be limited 因为大脑是有限的because its a finite, limited brain.但并没有人知道储存容量到底有多大But nobody knows how big it is.没人知道你的大脑能存储多少兆兆的字节Nobody knows how many terabytes you carry around in your brain但是 容量确实很大and-but its a lot.与之相比 工作记忆Compare this to working memory,短时记忆的储存容量the short-term memory,实际上则非常有限which is actually very limited.此时此刻Your memory of what you could store你能够保持在意识之中的记忆on in-where you could hold in consciousness right now是十分有限的is quite limited.我们来做个练习 不要把我说的写下来Here is an exercise. Do not write these things down.我想要你们记住我说的And I want you to remember them. 我念一组数字Im just gonna give you a few numbers.fn微软雅黑fs14bord1shad1b0c&HFFFFFF&3c&H111111&4c&H111111&14 59 11 109N14, 59, 11, 109,fn微软雅黑fs14bord1shad1b0c&HFFFFFF&3c&H111111&4c&H111111&43 58 98 47N43, 58, 98, 47,fn微软雅黑fs14bord1shad1b0c&HFFFFFF&3c&H111111&4c&H111111&25 389 44N25, 389, 44.请把这些数字写下来Please write them down.你们可以把这当做一次智力测验View this as an IQ test 如果这样想能让你们放松点的话if that would relax you.参与这个实验的 你们有多少人How many of you who decided to participate in this experiment只写出了三个或者更少got three or less?很好 很好 Good. Good. 四个呢 五个 六个Four, five, six,七个 八个 九个或者更多的seven, eight, nine or more?有将十一个数字全部写出的人吗Anybody get all eleven?这是个非常难的记忆任务This is a particularly difficult memory task.这些数字毫无意义The numbers are meaningless.我忘了告诉你们And I told-and I forgot to tell you要准备好你们的笔 准备好写东西to get your pen and pencil ready,所以有些人就只是瞪着我在看So some of you just glared at me.但认知心理学家乔治米勒认为But under normal circumstances,这个实验表明the cognitive psychologist, George Miller said在通常情况下 that this sort of suggested短时记忆的标准记忆容量that the standard memory storage of short-term memory是七加减二is seven, plus or minus two.这也就是说 大约是五到九And what that means is anywhere from five to nine roughly.我相信肯定有人记下了比这更多的数字Some of you, I bet, can beat that.有些人今天不在状态Some of you on a not-so-good day 可能没记下那么多maybe wont make it that much.七加减二Now seven plus or minus two is what you-;这就是你能在意识中保持的信息数量So, thats what you hold in consciousness.我告诉你 14 21You know, I can tell you 14, 21. 你边走边说 You walk around, fn微软雅黑fs14bord1shad1b0c&HFFFFFF&3c&H111111&4c&H111111&14 21Noh, yeah, 14, 21.你很轻松的就把它们保存在了意识之中You hold that in consciousness with no problem.但我一下对你说了十一个数字But I throw eleven numbers at you, 你就记不住了you cant.一些数字就被漏掉了Some dribble out. 你无法将这些数字保存在You cant hold that 有意识的短时记忆之中in your conscious window in your short-term memory.现在 这就引出了个问题Now, this raises the question 七加减二个什么seven plus or minus two what?答案便是And the answer seems to be被乔治米勒称之为组块的东西what George Miller calls chunks.组块是基本的记忆单位And a chunk is a basic memory unit,你可以将它看做是单一独立的实体Something you think of as a single, individual entity.假设你看到一串字母So, suppose you see the string of lettersfn微软雅黑fs14bord1shad1b0c&HFFFFFF&3c&H111111&4c&H111111&l a m aNl, a, m, a,fn微软雅黑fs14bord1shad1b0c&HFFFFFF&3c&H111111&4c&H111111&i s o nNi, s, o, n如果你不知道If you dont know-如果你不能把它们组合成词If you cant form these into words 要记住它们and you have to remember them,就要记住八个组块these are eight chunks.你必须把这些组块分别记住You have to just pick them up separately.另一方面 如果你把它们组合成四个词On the other hand, if you break them up into four words 那你只需要四个组块就能记住这些字母you could just remember it as four chunks.如果你把这串字母组成两个法语单词And if you break it up into two words in french,fn微软雅黑fs14bord1shad1b0c&HFFFFFF&3c&H111111&4c&H111111&la maisonNla maison,也就是房子的意思the house,这就只需要记住一个或两个组块了it could just be one or two.你的理解程度How much you know depends-会影响你记住的信息量affects how much you memorize影响你在记忆中存储的信息量how much you could store in memory 因为你的理解程度会影响记忆的基本单位because it affects what counts as a basic unit of memory.这方面的例子有很多And theres all sorts of examples of this.如果我念If I tell you fn微软雅黑fs14bord1shad1b0c&HFFFFFF&3c&H111111&4c&H111111&1 1 0 1 1 0 N1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, fn微软雅黑fs14bord1shad1b0c&HFFFFFF&3c&H111111&4c&H111111&0 1 0 1 1 0N0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0,你们当中不懂二进制数的人Those of you who dont know binary numbers可能会把我刚才念的数字记成might have to remember that 1 1 0 0 类似这样as 1, 1, 0, 0, whatever I said.对于那些计算机科学家们Those of you who are computer scientists或是数学家们or mathematicians 或是无论出于什么原因or, for whatever reason,懂的二进制数的人来说know binary numbers他们能够将这串数字转化成could convert it 一个单独的二进制数into a single binary number.有人记得那个数字是多少吗 Anybody know what the number is? 可惜 我也记不清了No, I cannot say it again.某个数字吧 二十四 Some number, 24, 或者不是二十四 反正就某个数字吧or not 24-to some number,二十四 然后你记住二十四就可以了24, and then you remember 24.这就简单多了 Its easier. 假设你看见一个棋盘Suppose you see a chessboard一个已经摆好的棋盘And the chessboard is set up and你不会下国际象棋you dont know how to play chess.那么要记住棋盘就非常困难了It is murderously hard to remember that.有人做过相关的实验Theyve done the experiments.他们把不会下国际象棋的人带到实验室Theyve taken people in a lab who dont know how to play chess.摆好准备好一个棋局 然后说They set up a chessboard and then they say,好了 请观察这个棋盘五分钟Okay. Look at this for five minutes.然后他们把棋盘拿走Then they take it away, 要求把它重新摆好set it up again,这简直太难了And its murderously hard.那个边上有个马 等等There is a horse-y thing on the side there and everything.但是如果棋子是按照对棋手来说But if these chess pieces are set up in some way 存在逻辑关系的某种方式进行摆放thats logical for a chess player,那么国际象棋大师便可在很短的时间内then a chess master could look at it 记住棋盘摆放的位置and remember it in a glance,这是斐波纳契防守阵 或别的什么Oh. Its the Fibonacci Defense or something like that,之后便能迅速地将棋盘重新摆好And then immediately recover it.同样 橄榄球教练会接受Similarly, football coaches have been tested 对橄榄球示意图的记忆测试on their memories of football diagrams.他们拥有对橄榄球示意图的照片式记忆And they have a photographic memory for football diagrams因为这些示意图对于他们来说是有意义的because it corresponds to things that make sense.建筑师也会拥有照片式记忆Architects could have a photographic memory,对布图规划的完美记忆a perfect memory for floor plans 因为布图规划对他们来说是有意义的because it makes sense to them.他们能够理解其中含义 They understand it. 事物在记忆中的存储方式And so the way you store things in memory,很大程度上取决于你对该事物的理解程度and this is a theme were going to return to 等我们讲到长时记忆时when we get to long-term memory, 我们还会回头来讲这个问题depends in a large extent on how much you understand it.这种不同会在专业知识的效果上表现出来And this shows up in expertise effects.这些是目前所讲到的关于短时记忆的内容Now, this is whats happening so far in short-term memory,短时记忆的容量how much you hold in there.问题是你又如何让它进入长时记忆呢The question is how do you get it into long-term memory?长时记忆是你主要的储存系统So, you have long-term memory, your major storage system.信息是如何从意识进入长时记忆的呢How does information get from your consciousness to long-term storage?有这么一种方法Well, theres one thing-theres one way 有时候还算有用 但效果一般which sort of works sometimes but not very well.这种方法叫做保持性复述And its called maintenance rehearsal.假设我让你记住一些数字Suppose I said you have to remember this number,一串数字this string of numbers.如果你能在二十分钟内将它们记下来And if you remember it in twenty minutes就能得到一千美元you will get one thousand dollars.这串数字是我小时候的电话号码And the string is my phone number when I was a kid.也包括区号and include the area codefn微软雅黑fs14bord1shad1b0c&HFFFFFF&3c&H111111&4c&H111111&514 688 9057N514-688-9057.现在 如果你把这些告诉一个四岁小孩Now, if you tell that to a four-year-old, well,四岁的孩子会说 我会记住的the four-year-old will say, Ill remember it.然后你问他们 我刚才说了什么And then you ask them, what did I just say? 我不知道well, I dont know.如果你把电话号码告诉成年人If you tell it to an-如果你经常需要用电话because you know something 那你就会知道这是什么if a lot depended on it,也就会知道该做些什么you would know to do something.你会对自己说What you would do is youd say to yourself,fn微软雅黑fs14bord1shad1b0c&HFFFFFF&3c&H111111&4c&H111111&514 688 9057 N514-688-9057,fn微软雅黑fs14bord1shad1b0c&HFFFFFF&3c&H111111&4c&H111111&514 688 9057 N514-688-9057, fn微软雅黑fs14bord1shad1b0c&HFFFFFF&3c&H111111&4c&H111111&514 688N514-688 -你会在头脑中不断地重复Youd rehearse it in your head over and over again.问题是只有不断重复 你才能记住这些The problem is you could hold it as long as you can do that.这和我们在电影中看到的情节很像Its like these movies. 你可以经常看到这种情节You see this all the time, 比如在24小时的一集中like an episode of 24:杰克 给反恐局打电话 jack, call CTU 告诉他们11号特工被困在.and tell them agent 11 is trapped in a-我记不住这情节And I cant even remember this 但记住这一情节的方法是but the way to remember it 将你刚刚听到的内容is you hold youve just got to repeat it 在你的脑袋里不断重复over and over again in your head.但这种复述通常不能将信息转入长时记忆But this will not typically get things into long-term memory.要让信息进入长时记忆To get things into long-term memory,光复述是不够的rehearsal is usually not enough.你还需要做些其他的事情You need to do other things.通常你需要将信息结构化 并进行组织Typically, what you need is structure and organization.经典的加工深度实验And one way to demonstrate this 从一个方面证明了这个观点was in a classic depth of processing experiment该实验非常清晰地表明which nicely illustrates the fact 你对信息组织越充分that the more you structure something,对信息理解的越深刻the deeper you think about it, 信息进入长时记忆的效果就越好the better it gets entrenched in the long-term memory.在该实验中 研究者们要求被试So, in this study what they did was they asked people他们告诉被试they told people 屏幕上将会闪现一些单词that theres going to be words flashed on a screen.所有被试看到的都是相同的一串的单词And all of the subjects saw the same strings of words.总共四十八个单词There were forty-eight words.被试们并未被告知去记住这些单词They were not told to memorize the words.三分之一的被试被告知One third of the subjects was told,请注意 将要出现的单词中Look. Some of these words 有些用的是大写字母are going to come out in capital letters,有些并没用大写字母some of them not capital letters.分别对大写字母和非大写字母进行按键Press a button for capitals, non-capitals.就这样Sure.另一组被试被告知The other group was told,这些单词中Some of these words 有些将与train同韵will rhyme with train,其他则不是others wont.如果与train同韵 请按键Press a button if it rhymes in train.第三组被试被告知 The third group was told, 出现的单词能否填入这句话中Does it fit into the sentence女孩将_放到桌子上The girl placed the blank on the table?若能填入请按这个键Press a button if it does. 若不能请按那个键Press a button if it doesnt.然后突然问被试Then they were asked as a surprise, 你们看到的单词是什么what words did you see?实验结果大致是这样的And the findings looked like this.当被试被要求关注单词的外形时When they were asked to focus on just what the word looked like, 他们对单词的记忆效果非常差memory was very poor,当关注声音时稍好 关注意义时最好the sound better, the meaning better.如果你想记住些东西If you want to remember something,最好的方法就是为信息赋予含义the best way to remember it is to give it meaning, 让其拥有意义to give it sense.通过一项非常古老的技术可以证明此观点This is illustrated through a very ancient technique, 这种记忆方法就是通过记忆术which is that the way to remember things that are otherwise arbitrary 通过生动图像 歌曲 或是诗歌is to give them some organization through memory tricks, 将杂乱的信息组织起来through vivid imagery or songs or poetry.这样的例子有很多And theres a lot of examples of this.你们知道如何记住海马体这个术语吗Do you know how to remember that the hippocampus,大脑中有个部位叫海马体theres a part of the brain called the hippocampus.这是史上最烂的记忆术了This is the worst memory trick ever但却能保证你二十年忘不掉but it will stick with you for twenty years.海马体与空间记忆有关The hippocampus is involved in spatial memory.它与认路有关Its involved in finding your way around.你这么想Think to yourself,我是通过海马体在校园里认路的The way I find my way around campus is through the hippocampus.你会想 这太傻了And you think, well, thats stupid,但你永远不会都忘记But youll never forget now 海马体是控制空间记忆that the hippocampus is in charge of spatial memory.你上完这门课就只能记住这个了Its going to be all you retain from this course.关于如何记住人名的记忆类书籍Memory books on how to remember peoples names通常会在你想要记住诗歌或者表演图像时usually try to exploit this sort of thing采用这些方法when you try to get poetry or dramatic images.因此记忆类书籍里总是会有些经典例子So, the memory books always typically involve somebody 比如你遇到某个留着钉子头的人like you meet somebody with very spiky hair 他说我是菲什先生 鱼先生and they say My name is Mr. Fish 之后你就牢牢记住了and