linguistics 2010.doc

Chapter 1 introduction1.Why learn linguistics? 2.What to learn?3.Whats the difference between linguistics and literature?Definition of linguistics The scientific study or systematic study of languages.Science-linguistics-literatureProcess of Linguistic Study Linguistic facts are observed; similarities are found, so generalizations are made;Hypotheses are formulated ;Hypotheses are tested by further observations;A theory is constructed about how language works. Four Principles in Linguistic StudyExhaustiveness 穷尽性consistency一致性 Economy 经济性 Objectivity 客观性Scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics/Microlinguistics 普通语言学/微观语言学pp.4-5Macrolinguistics宏观语言学pp.5-7 interdisciplinary branches of study 交叉学科研究）MicrolinguisticsThe study of language itself; it studies the various aspects of language, including sound, form and meaning.Sound: phonetics, phonologyForm: morphology, syntaxMeaning: semantics, (pragmatics)MacrolinguisticsThe study of language in relation to other disciplines (interdisciplinary studies):Psycholinguistics: language and mind, language acquisition, comprehension and productionNeurolinguistics: language processing and representationStylistics: science of literature, etc.Some Linguistic Distinctions1.Descriptive & prescriptive grammars2.Synchronic & diachronic linguistics 共时语言学 历时语言学3.Langue 语言 & parole言语 by Saussure4.Competence语言能力 & performance语言应用 by Chomsky 5.Syntagmatic & paradigmatic relations（横）组合关系和（纵）聚合关系 6.Functionalism 功能主义& formalism 形式主义 linguistics vs. traditional grammar1.Descriptive vs. prescriptive;2.Oral (speech) vs. written (language)3. Individual language vs. Latin-based1.Descriptive & prescriptive grammarsDescriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language;Prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language A linguist is interested in what is said, not what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of correctnessHe does not believe that there is some absolute standard of correctness concerning language use.Spoken language as primaryLinguists give priority to the spoken language, because it precedes the written language everywhere in the world and most writing systems are derived from the vocal soundsLinguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.Weak points of Traditional Grammar规定语言学家在判断语言的正确与否时常从逻辑学的角度加以观察，但是却忽视了语言在受一般逻辑规律支配的同时，又有自身的规律，使得语言规律与逻辑规律既有相似性又有相异性。I cant care less. I can care less.按照逻辑的一般规律，这两个话语应该有着相互对立的语义，但是它们的理性语义却是一样的，即：I dont mind.“差点儿”和“差点儿没”两个表达法： 他差点儿摔倒了。 他差点儿没摔倒用“差点儿”或“差点儿没”去与说话人不希望实现的事情搭配，那么它们都是指事情接近实现而没有实现。我差点儿通过了考试。 我差点儿没通过考试。如果用“差点儿”和“差点儿没”去修饰说话人希望实现的事情，那么“差点儿”含有惋惜希望的事情未能实现，而“差点儿没”是指庆幸希望的事情发生了。R.R.K. Harman et al (1973:328) 在“Dictionary of Language and Linguistics” 中指出：“标准语言是社会赞成使用的一种语言变体，在正式谈话、协作以及对外国人进行语言教学时使用There are no absolute standards of correctness in language.虽然语言学家几乎都从语言使用和语言使用者两个方面对标准英语进行定义，但是在实践中，衡量语言标准尺度仍然以规定语法为基础，忽视大量语用数据与规定法则的抵触现象。这种抵触在现代英语中越来越明显。规定语法在18世纪对 “who”与 “whom”的使用规则只有两条：1）“who”只充当主语；2）“whom”只用作宾语。在作介词宾语时，无论介词位于代词 “whom”之前，还是之后，都必须用 “whom”。但是，自从规定语法的建立，这一 规则就受到了语言使用者的挑战， 尤其是有影响的文学家对 “who” 和 “whom”的混用使得它们在功能上的划分变得模糊不清。Sledd(1987), Quirk(1985)以及 Sinclair (1990)继18世纪有关 “who” 与“whom”的规定语法之后，认为 “who”除了紧跟介词之后需要用 “whom”以外，在其它情况下均可以使用 “who”。Flor Aarts（1989）曾用以下调查问卷在Louisiana State university对大学生进行了调查，其部分内容如下：1)The man _ ran the stop sign is dangerous(2)The little girl _ you watched eat all the cookies is fat.(3)That guy _ you met last night is a bit nuts.(4)The dude_ you delivered the pizza to is my brother.调查发现，在例（1）中选择 “who”的为100%，例（2）和例（3）中选择 “who”与 “whom”分别是60%和40%。在例（4）中，选择 “who”占被调查人员的80%。英语在发展过程中越来越显示出对 “who”的宠爱， 而对 “whom”则逐渐开始冷落。Websters New Collegiate Dictionary (1977)给 “they” 和“their” 定义： They/their: often used with an indefinite third person singular第三人称单数无标记antecedente.g.:anyone in their sensesW.H.Auden2.Synchronic & diachronic linguisticsSynchronic linguistics studies language at one particular time; diachronic linguistics studies language development through time;3. Langue vs. paroleLangue Langue refers to the language system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole Parole refers to the actual use of language by people in speech or writing.To Saussure, parole is a mass of confused facts, unsuitable for systmatic investigation28LangueAbstract linguistic systemSocial code, abstract knowledgeStable, systematicParoleParticular realization of languageIndividual messagesvariable4. Competence vs. Performance by Chomsky (语言能力） （语言应用） Competence is the ideal language users knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationA speakers competence is stable whele his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. A speakers performance does not always match or equal his competence. A linguist ought to study competence rather than performance.Distinciton b/t Saussure and Chomskys distinctionsSaussures langue is a set of social conventions;Chomskys competence is a psychological construct5.Syntagmatic vs. paradigmatic Syntactic relations are positional relations, the sequential arrangement of smaller linguistic forms into larger ones.Paradigmatic relations are those of substitution.6.Functionalism vs. formalism(功能主义) (形式主义)Functionalsm studies the forms of language in relation to their social function, e.g. HallidayFormalism studies the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.E.g. ChomskyLanguageI. The Definition of languageII. Design Features of LanguageIII. Functions of LanguageDefinition of language语言是以语音为物质外壳， 以语义为意义内容的，音义结合的词汇建筑材料和语法组织规律的体系。-王德春 语言学概论Sapirs Definition of languageLanguage is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily arbitrary symbols. (Sapir, 1921)Chomskys definitionI will consider a language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Syntactic Structures 1957) A system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationsDesign Features- - Features that define our human languageI.Arbitrariness 任意性II.Duality 双重性/两重性III.Productivity创造性IV.Interchangeability互换性V.Displacement 移位性VI.Specialization 专门性VII.Cutural transmission传递性VIII.Discreteness 离散性IX.Learnability习得性II Design Features of Language1. Arbitrariness: forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning (Page 4) II Design Features of LanguageIn other words, it is impossible to predict the meaning from the form, or vice versa. Look at the following diagram. word form meaning onomatopoeia象声词 1Apes gibber.猴子唧唧叫Roosters crow. 公鸡喔喔叫Hens cluck. 母鸡咯咯嗒Chicks peep. 小鸡唧唧唧Bulls bellow. Cows moo 老牛哞哞哞Ducks quack.鸭子嘎嘎嘎Cats mew. 小猫喵喵叫Frogs croak.青蛙呱呱呱Goats bleat.小羊咩咩咩Pigs grunt. 小猪呼噜噜Mice squeak. 老鼠吱吱叫Dogs bark. 小狗汪汪叫onomatopoeia象声词 2Bees buzz; they go bzzz. Birds chirp; they go tweet tweet. Cuckoos go cuckoo. Donkeys bray; they go hee-haw. Doves coo. Geese honk. Horses neigh or whinney. Lions roar. Owls hoot; they go hoo. Roosters crow; they go cock-a-doodle-doo. Turkeys go gobble gobble. Wolves howl. Design Features of LanguageAnimals make much the same sounds around the world, but each language expresses them differently. Arbitrary and onomatopoeic effect may work at the same time. “It is only when you know the meaning that you infer that the form is appropriate.” (Widdowson)II Design Features of Language The arbitrary link between a linguistic sign and its meaning, however, is also conventional. Read the following joke A naughty boy beginning to learn ABC is bothering his teacher repeatedly: “Why we shall read it A?” “Why we shall read it B?” The annoyed teacher pinched his nose. “Auch, my nose!” The annoyed teacher pinched his ear. “Auch, my ear!” Then the teacher asked: “Why you call it your ear and nose?” “It is so named and so called.” “Alright, ABC is so named and so called.”Questions 1.What is language? How do you understand the definition?2.What are some important design features of language? Can you raise examples to illustrate?3. By the property of arbitrariness, do we mean that a person can use the language as freely as we like? Question: What design feature here?Design Features of Language:duality Also called double articulation( 双重性）: the property of having two levels of structure. 人类语言的双重性主要是指（1 ）用本身无意义的语音构成有意义的语言单位这一事实；（2 ）此外，还指用一个层次上的成分构成另一个层次上的更大单位。“ 分层 一级一级的组织 是有限的手段无限使用的物质表现，是人类语言最显著的特征。” （Bolinger & Sears ） dualityThis property is generally assumed as central to language. E.g. A, p, t :Apt, pat, tapE.g. The dog followed the man.The man followed the dog.Design Features of LanguageproductivityAlso called Creativity: the ability that we all have to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including sentences that we have never heard before, but that are appropriate to the situation in which they are uttered.This feature equips us with the ability to produce completely new utterances and ideas.Design Features of Languagedisplacement Displacement: the ability for the human language users to talk about things remote either in space or in time. Design Features of Language cultural transmission Also called learnability. While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. A human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire language.The Origin of LanguageThe divine-origin theory Christian: God Egyptians: The God ThothThe Hindus: The God Brahma and Goddess SarasvatiThe invention theory The bow-wow theoryThe pooh-pooh theoryThe “yo-he-ho” theoryThe evolutionary theory Functions of Language 1 Language is a tool of communicationRoman JacobsonWhat do we communicate?Functions of Language1.Phatic function/communion交感功能 2.Directive function指令功能3.Informative function信息传达4.Interrogative function信息索取5.Expressive function感情功能6.Evocative function激发功能7.Performative function施为功能8.Recreational function娱乐功能9.Metalinguistic function元语言功能, etc.What functions of language being used ？Good morning, Ms Zhang! Hello, Mary. Its really cold today. Yeah, really.Lets begin our class now.The main design features of languages are arbitrariness, duality, creativity and displacement.I love this class. parody (仿化） What I mean is, I do hope you can enjoy the classChapter 2 phoneticsThe articulators/organs of speech(Page 27 )Three cavities related to speech: Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔Oral cavity 口腔.Nasal cavity 鼻腔Vocal OrgansInitiator /Producer 1.pharyngeal cavity 2. oral cavity 3.nasal cavityChapter 2 The Sounds of Language (1)Phonetics will cover:Acoustic phonetics声响语音学;Auditory phonetics听觉语音学Articulatory phonetics发声语音学，including:articulators/ speech organsclassification of speech soundsvariations of sounds distinctive featuresClassification of speech sounds1. Consonants A. manner of articulation B. place of articulation2. Vowels: monophthongs & diphthongs A. tongue position B. lip-rounding C. vowel length D. mouth-openingConsonantsConsonants :Manner of articulation1.Stops/plosives p b t d k g爆破音2.fricatives f v s z h 摩擦音3.afficates t d 塞擦音4.liquids l、r 流音5.nasals m n 鼻音6.glides w j 滑音Consonants: Place of Articulation1.bilabials p, b, m w 双唇音2.labiodentals f, v 唇齿音3.dentals/interdentals 、 齿音4.alveolars t,d,l,n.s,z,r 齿龈音5.palatals t d j 腭音6.velars k g 软腭音7.glottal h 喉音 English Vowels 1According to tongue position (p.34) :Front vowels i: i e Central vowels : Back vowels u: u : :English Vowels 2According to lip-rounding:Rounded vowels u: u : Unrounded vowels i: i e : :English Vowels 3According to vowel length:(p.34)Long vowels i: : u: : : short vowels i u e English Vowels 4According to mouth-openingOpen vowels :Close vowels i: i u: u Semi-open and semi-close vowels: the restEnglish Vowels 5The diphthongs:ei ai i u i au uCardinal VowelsA set of arbitrary reference points fixed with the tongue put in most easily felt positions.English VowelsNatural Classes 自然类(Add) A natural class is a complete set of sounds that can be described by one or more phonetic features which they have in common. members of a natural class will behave similarly in the same phonetic environment, and will have a similar effect on sounds that occur in their environment.Phonetics vs. phonologyPhonetics语音: concerned with all the speech sounds in all human languagesPhonology音系: concerned with how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phones, phoneme, allophone 1 (add)Phone (音素): The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication. A phone doesnt necessarily distinguish meaning. E.g. ph as in “pot”, and p as in “spot” l as in “let”, and l as in “apple”Phones, phoneme, allophone 2 (add)Phoneme (音位): Not any particular sound, but a unit represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. It distinguishes meaning.E.g.: / p /, / l /Phones, phoneme, allophone 3Allophone(音位变体）: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. Both ph and p are allophones of the same phoneme / p /. Phones, phoneme, allophone 4 (add)Allophones are of the same phoneme.Allophones do not distinguish meaning.Allophones are in complementary distribution (互补分布）, i.e., they never occur in the same environment. Some Natural ClassesA.Voiced sounds vs. voiceless sounds :p t k f s t (ts tr)b d g v z d (dz dr)B.Nasal vs. oral sounds:Nasal sounds: m n Oral sounds: the restChapter 2 The Sounds of Language(2) PhonologyMinimal pairs Free variation Distinctive features Syllables & consonant clusters Suprasemental features Some rules in phonologyMinimal PairsA. Definition: The same number of phonemes;Different meaningsDifference between one sound segment (phoneme)occuring in the same place in the string.B. Function: to determine which are distinctive sounds (phonemes) in a languageMinimal Pairs or Not? dip: disk pig: dig fat: tap pat: tapheart: hut how: herepair: poor height: mightjoke: choke fail: vailpoor: pea wet: yet Distinctive Features p.40 Also called phonemic features are features that distinguish one phoneme from another. The feature of being with one and without the other is represented by two values: +, - Features that are not distinctive are called redundant featuresWhat Are the Distinctive Features?m vs.b: nasalm: +bilabial, +voice, +nasalb: +bilabial, +voice, -nasal What about b vs.d ?Page 40 Free Variation 自由音变A. Definition: Two or more sounds occur in the same position without change of meaning.E.g.:direction i/ ai; either i/ aiB. Free variation does not change the meaning of a word; it is the result of differences in pronunciation or dialect. 自由音变vs.不自由音变(Add)：不自由音变指在语流中只要出现音变条件，音变现象就必然发生，如北京话的上声变调:shui21435zhun214 （水准）。自由音变指在语流中虽出现音变条件，但音变现象不一定必然发生，变和不变是两可的，因环境和个人习惯而异。如北京话的“七、八”变调。“七、八 ”本调为阴平，位于去声前可读成阳平。如“七天七夜”，“七上八下”，“七嘴八舌”， “七零八落”等。Some rules in phonology 1 Sequential rules: which govern the combination of sound in a particular language (p.42) /S/ + /p， t ，k/ + /r， l， j， w/ In English, there may be at most three consonants before the peak and four after it. e.g. : sixths Some rules in phonology 2 (35-36)Liason rule连音 :later on, there areElision rule省音: mostlyAssimilation rule同化, including 1. progressive顺同化: stops, stabs 2. regressive逆同化: immovable, ingratitude, think, sun glassesAssimilation Also called co-articulation. One sound takes on some or all of a neighbouring sound.同化是语流音变中最常见的现象。为了发音便利，相邻音互相影响、相互调整，使原来不相同、不相近的音，变为相同或相近的音。如鼻音化nasalizationSyllable音节 Open or Closed Syllables?syllableEconomyExhaustiveConsistencyCodagrammarTransmitSyntagmaticParadigmaticVowelSuprasegmental featuresDefinition（43）：sound contrasts that extend over several segments (phonemes) Including:1. Stress (重音）2. intonation（语调）: pitch (音高），stress, sound length tied to a sentence 3. tone （音调,声调）: pitch variations e.g. Chinese (level, rise, fall-rise, fall)Questions to ponder1. Define these terms:Phoneme, allophone, phonetics, phonology,Elision, free variation, minimal pairs2. Exercises on p.45: 2, 4, 5, 6Chapter 3 MorphologyChapter 3 Morphology 形态学 Morphology is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation. Morphology falls into two categories: inflectional morphology (study of inflections) and lexical/derivational morphol