语言与文化 考试重点.doc

Chapter 1 Language culture and thought1 properties of languageLanguage is systematic :which means that it is rule governed Language is arbitrary :Language consists of arbitrary symbols There is no logical relationship between words and the objects actions or concepts these words are used to refer to(onomatopoeic words and compounds)Language is symbolic :Words are associated with objects actions and ideas through conventionLanguage is vocal :This statement means that speech is the primary medium of languageLanguage is uniquely human :Language is human specific Only human beings possess what can be called language in the true sense of the termLanguage is used for communication :Communication is the primary function of language Language is used to understand and describe the world :Language is the carrier and container of cultural information :Human beings have been interacting with the world and accumulated their experience and knowledge about the world which are interpreted as cultural information 2 Definitions and properties of culture 2.1 Definitions of cultureIn English cultureis a loan word from Latin in which it mainly meantcultivating or tilling the land2.1.1 Culture in its broad senseCulture in its broad sense is also called large C culture or academic cultureMaterials man has got to satisfy his needs :Everything manufactured in factories or grown on farmland Social institutions and organizations man ha establishedKnowledge about nature and man himself and artistic developmentLanguage and other communication systemsCustoms habits and behavioural patterns Value systems world views national traits aesthetic standards and thinking patterns 2.1.2 Culture in its narrow sense Culture in its narrow sense is also called small c cultureor anthropological cultureCulture can be defined as lifeway of a population2.2 Properties of cultureCulture is human special Culture is a social phenomenon :This statement emphasizes the contrast between society and nature Culture is a national phenomenon :Each nation has been living in its unique geographical and historical framework in which a unique culture has been establish and is developingCulture is also a historical phenomenon ;Each generation inherits the culture established by its forefathers Culture is general and abstract3 Relationship between language culture and thought3.1 Relationship between language and cultureLanguage is part of cultureLanguage is the carrier and container of cultureAs a mirror of culture language is strongly influenced and shaped by cultureLanguage also exerts its influence on cultureLanguage and culture is closely related each influencing and shaping the other3.2 thought Thought is the function and product of the human brainThought also refers to patterns of ideas characteristic of a social group3.3 Relationship between language and thoughtLanguage is an instrument used in the communication of thought Language is closely related to thinkingLanguage is influenced and shaped by thoughtLanguage is used for conveying ideas its structure and function must reflect these ideasLanguage also exerts strong influence on thought 3.4 Concluding remarks on the relationship between language thought and cultureThe three aspects interact each influencing and shaping the other two4 Intercultural communicationIntercultural communication is concerned with communication among people from different cultural backgroundsIntercultural communication mainly deals with verbal and nonverbal interacting and related factors in intercultural communicationChapter 2 Words and Meaning1 What are words and meaning1.1 WordWords are units of expression which language users can intuitively recognize in either speech or writing1.2 Meaning1.2.1 Conceptual meaningConceptual meaning is the basic meaning presented by meaningful linguistic units,the central factor in linguistic communicationThe relationship between a word and an object in the real world or a concept in our mind to which the word refer is the conceptual meaning of the word1.2.2 Connotative meaningConnotative meaning is the communicative value an expression has in addition to the purely conceptual meaning (woman statesman politician)1.2.3 Social meaningSocial meaning or stylistic meaning is what a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances (language users settings topics) (domicile residence abode home)1.2.4 Affective meaningAffective meaning is communicated when the feelings or attitudes are expressed in language1.2.5 Reflected meaningReflected meaning arises in words of multiple conceptual meaning (the Comforter the Holy Ghost intercourse ejaculation erection)1.2.6 Collocative meaningCollocative meaning consists of associations a word gets from those words that are often used together with it (pretty handsome)1.2.7 Thematic meaningThematic meaning is what is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes a message ordering focus emphasis1.2.1-1.2.6 :heading associative meaning 2. words and conceptual meaning2.1 Words and culture-specific conceptual meaning2.1.1 Words and geographyThe United States of America 美利坚合众国 The Mississippi 密西西比河 Superior 苏必利尔湖 Niagara Falls 尼亚加拉大瀑布 Rocky Mountains 落基山脉 Washington 华盛顿 poke 美洲商陆 terrapin 北美泥龟 The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国 The Thames 泰晤士河 the Channel 英吉利海峡 England 英格兰London 伦敦The Commonwealth of Australia 澳大利亚联邦New South Wales 新南威尔士州Great Barrier Reef 大堡礁 Great Victoria Desert 大维多利亚沙漠 Canberra 堪培拉koala 考拉熊 kangaroo 袋鼠2.1.2 Words and historyAmerican history The May flower五月花号The Revolutionary war or War of Independence 独立战争Continental Congress 大陆会议Emancipation Proclamation 解放宣言 Homestead Ac 宅地法案Scalp 波代发头皮Lynch 私刑Cowboy 牛仔 Hippie 嬉皮士British historyDuck a nobleman holding the highest hereditary title outside the royal family 公爵Knight a man given the rank of knighthood by the British monarch in recognition of merits in public service 骑士Glorious Revolution 光荣革命Castle 光荣革命Fort 要塞或壁垒式的贸易站2.1.3 Words and politicsPresident 总统the elected head of the government in the USACongress 国会the federal legislature of the USASupreme Court 最高法院the highest judicial body in the USA Democratic Party 民主党Republican Party 共和党Queen 女王the female monarch of the UK Prime Minister 首相 the leader of the British government Parliament 议会 the supreme legislative body of the United KingdomLabour Party 工党 Conservative Party 保守党 Governor-General 总督2.1.4 Words and the ChristianityTrinity Bible Catholic Orthodox Eastern Church Reformation Protestant Puritan Mass2.1.5 Words and HolidaysChristmas box(圣诞节礼) Christmas Card(圣诞贺卡) Christmas tree(圣诞树) Christmas pudding(圣诞布丁) Christmas rose(圣诞玫瑰) Christmastide(圣诞节节期) Thanksgiving Day(感恩节) Boxing Day(节礼日) Easter(复活节) St. Valentines Day(情人节) April Fools Day(愚人节) Anzac Day(新澳军团日)2.1.6 Words and living stylesHot dog(热狗) Hamburger(汉堡包) Sandwich(三明治) Pudding(布丁) Salad(沙拉) Whisky(威士忌) Cocktail(鸡尾酒) Drive-ins 汽车的 Diners (用餐) Baseball (垒球) Rugby(橄榄球) Hockey(曲棍球) Water skiing(滑水) Polo(马球) Golf(高尔夫球) Striptease(脱衣舞)Love store(色情商店) X-rated sexploitation movies() Late-late TV shows2.2 English words that correspond partially in conceptual meaning with their translation equivalents in Chinese.Intellectuals (知识分子) Social sciences (社会科学)A Yard(院子) Quadrangle Courtyards (四合院)Drugstore(AE) Chemists shop (BE)(药店)Chauvinist pig :a guy who believes that woman are inferior Dude athlete macho stud hunk Don Juan playboy egotist fratty bagger :guys who think they are really cool woman-pleaser types conceited type of peopleTurkey nerd jerk prick bastard pimp skinhead redneck dog :they are people a woman may not want to be seen with or want to talk to Wimp, sissy, homosexual, queer, gay, hippie: 奇怪的, 同性恋者.Couchwarmer:Ladies manMan, boy, guy, fellow, gentleman, boyfriend, fianc, lover, sweet heart: 指男性的2.3 English words and what may be mistaken for their equivalents in Chinese.Greenhouse(温室) Busywork(耗时而无价值的工作) Busmans holiday(消磨于与日常工作类似这活动的假日) Busybody(爱管闲事的人) Housewarming(乔迁之喜) Donkeywork(单调的日常工作) Police action(维和行动) Lowboy(矮脚抽屉柜) Free love(公开同居) First Lady(第一夫人)High school(中学) Rest room(公共建筑物内的洗水间,厕所)Equalitarianism or egalitarianism(平均主义) Lover(情人) Disinterested(公正的,不偏不倚的) Cooker(炊事用具)Wester(西风)2.4 Words, conceptual meaning and word formationGeneral termsTerms of maleTerms of femaleTerms for young鸡chicken公鸡 cock母鸡hen小鸡chick鸭duck公鸭drake母鸭duck小鸭duckling鹅goose公鹅gander母鹅goose小鹅gosling马horse公马stallion母马mare小马foal牛cattle, cow公牛bull母牛cow小牛calf羊sheep公羊ram母羊ewe小羊lamb猪pig公猪boar母猪sow小猪shoat狗dog公狗dog母狗bitch小狗puppy猫cat公猫tomcat母猫cat小猫kitten鹿deer公鹿stag母鹿doe小鹿fawn3. Words and associative meaning3.1 Words and connotative meaningbook: C: contain knowledge and wisdom for people, youth must learnE: it express ideas for people to consider, to agree or disagree, and to commentSexy: C: connotes loose sex moralityE: it is a positive human qualityOld, young: C: young means inexperienced, and inconsistent. Old means mature, skilled and experienced.E: young means flexible, vigorous, and creative. Old means traditional, senile, and useless.Dog: C: is very pejorative.E: it can even be considered as a family member.Peasant: C: doesnt have derogatory connotations.E: it has derogatoryLandlord, capitalist, boss: C: are pejorative in ChineseE: notComrade: C: connotes warmth, friendliness and equalityE: means spies of the Soviet UnionAmbitious, aggressive: C: it is pejorativeE: it is considered good qualities and both positive in meaning.Self-made man: C:E: it is positive term. Connoting lack of financial foundation and influential connections.Individualism: C: it is means selfishnessE: it is positive termPropaganda: C: it is a neutral term.E: it is a pejorative term in EnglishDo-gooder: C: it is means unselfish and helpfulE: it is a pejorative term in EnglishSpiritual: C: it hasnt this means in Chinese.E: it has religious connotation.3.2 Words and social meaningBritish English: spoken in the U.K, Australia, New Zealand, West Indian IslesAmerican English: spoken in the North America.BrEAmEChineseBroochBreastpin胸针MackintoshRaincoat雨衣SweetCandy糖果FlatApartment公寓PailBucket水桶CellarBasement地下室TapFaucet水龙头TimetableSchedule时间表Booking officeTicket office售票处AutumnFall秋天torchflashlight手电筒BrEAmEChineseSconebiscuit软饼BiscuitCracker饼干CrackerFirecracker爆竹CornGrain谷物MaizeCorn玉米JumperSweater毛线衣BlouseJumper短套衫VestUndershirt汗衫WaistcoatVest背心PurseChange purse钱包HandbagPurse手提包TruckFlatcar铁路平板车LorryTruck卡车ShopStore商店storeWarehouse货栈From EnglishFrom FrenchMeaning in ChineseAnswerreply回答RestRepose休息RoomChamber房间BearEndure忍受WoodsForest树林GiftPresent礼物LoveAffection爱情HouseMansion房子KingSovereign国王WishDesire愿望makeCreate创造There are also many triples of synonyms in Englsih.From EnglishFrom FrenchFrom LatinMeaning in ChineseWeakfeebleFragile软弱SizeCaliberMagnitude大小EmptyDevoidVacuous空的EndFinishComplete结束RiseMountAscend上升AskQuestionInterrogate问BellyStomachAbdomen胃、腹FireFlameConflagration火TimeAgeEpoch时代DiePassDecease死countCalculatecompute算English has been closely related to Latin as well. They borrowed dozens of words from Latin words entered English. Of course, sets of synonyms in English are not limited to the pairs and triples discussed above.3.3 Words and affective meaningsexy, young, dog, ambitious, aggressive, self-made man, individualism, equalitarianism or egalitarianism are positive in English, but pejorative in ChineseLandlord, capitalist, boss, free love are pejorative in Chinese, but neutral in EnglishOld, peasant, comrade, do-gooder, propaganda are pejorative in English, but neutral in Chinese.3.4 Words and reflected meaningGreen house: (E: emphasize its function, while Chinese view its from its physical characteristic.)Black tea: (E: named it after the colour of tea(leave), C: named it after the colour of tea(water colour)Ferrous metal: (E: according its ingredients. C: according their colours)Snakehead: (E: its head is its distinctive feature, C: it is its colour )Sun spot: (a spot black in colour)Wall clock: (E: where clocks can be found is the distinctive feature, C: emphasize the ways in which they are used.)Stop watch: (E: emphasize its mechanic quality, C: lay stress on the purpose for which it is used)Contact Lenses: (English speaker views the way they used, but Chinese attracted to their invisibility)Business Card: (it is used stand out in E, and its content is foregrounded in C)Marble-hearted: (it is a specific term in Englsih, but a general term in Chinese)Wood pulp：纸浆（english reminds us of the raw material, Chinese term the product）3.5 Words and collocative meaning.English termsTheir collocates（配置）VicePresident, chairman, chancellor, consul, governor, etcAssociateProfessor, editor, director, etcDeputeChairman, command-in-chief, mayor, head, etc.Lieutenant(陆军中尉)Governor, general, colonel, etcunderSecretary of States, secretary, etc.副总统、主席、市长、总督、国务卿、领事、校长、教授、主编、指挥等中将、校等Vice: one that takes the place ofAssociate: having secondary or subordinate status or closely connected(as in function of office) withDeputy: a second-in-command or assistant who usually takes charge when his superior is absentLieutenant: an official empowered for a higher official or an aid or representative of another in the performance of duty.Under: lower in authority of rand.Make a road 筑路 Make progress 取得进步 Make efforts 作出努力 Make a poem 作诗Make ones position known 表明立场 Make a fire 生火 Make tea 沏茶 Make money 挣钱Make enemies 树敌 Make peace 讲和 Take a book 拿一本书 Take a city 占领一座城Take an umbrella 带一把伞 Take the first place 获得第一名 Take ones leave 告辞Take cold 感冒 Take a seat 就坐 Take harbour 避入港湾 Take the floor 发言Take the blame 承担过错 Take a cup of tea 喝一杯茶Take action 采取行动Take a photograph 照相 Take a bath 洗澡 Look at the blackboard 看黑板See a film 看电影 Watch TV 看电视 Read a book 看书Visit a friend 看朋友Go to a doctor 看医生 Depend on circumstances 看情况 Trim ones sails看风使舵Open a tin 开罐头 Turn on light 开灯 Switch on TV 开电视Serve a meal 开饭Show mercy 开恩 Drive a car 开车 Sail a ship 开船 Fly a plane 开飞机Exploit a mine 开矿 Reclaim wasteland 开荒 Straighten out ones ideas 开窍Feel happy 开心Stimulate the appetite 开胃Begin to speak 开腔Fire a gun 开炮Make war 开战 Crack a joke 开玩笑 Topics for considerationChapter 3. Grammar and Culture1. Grammatical explicitness in English VS grammatical implicitness in ChineseGrammatical morphemes（smallest units of meaning. Can classified into two categories: inflectional morpheme(such as s, -es, ed, er, ing) and derivational(the other prefix and suffixes).）Subjects and objectssubjectiveIyouHesheItweYoutheyobjectiveMeYouHimHerItUsYouThemdeterminativeMyYourHisHerItsOursYourTheirGenitive independentmineYourshisHersitsOursyourTheirFor example: 下雨了 it is raining已经九点了 it is 9:00 already很冷 it is very coldIn Chinese subjects and objects are equal in importance in that they are both deletable, as shown in the examples in the preceding paragraphs. We dont mean to say that the subjects and objects are not important in Chinese, They are only “implicit” in some situations which is not synonymous to “less important.” English speakers refer to convey meaning explicitly, while the Chinese people, when having no problem identifying the subjects or objects in sentences, allow them to become implicit.Paratactic and hypotactic relationsIn many languages these linguistic units are related in meaningful ways. The ways in which the relationship beteen linguistic units are represented in speech or writing vary from language to language. It is often said that English is a hypotactic language and Chinese a paratactic one.For examples:Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁We will not attack unless we are attacked 人不犯我，我不犯人。It has been claimed that the English speaking people use more conjunctions more frequently because they are good at analytic thinking and thus understanding the relationship between linguistic units better, while the Chinese people who are inclined to think holistically may not like to indicate explicitly the logical relationship between the linguistic components in Sentences.Recipients and modifiersFor example: John hit the pocket on the head 约翰打中小偷的脑袋He caught me by the arm 他抓住我的胳膊He was deprived of the right t participate in the Olympic Games他被剥夺了参加奥运会的权力He was robbed of all his money 他的钱被抢光了These sentences show clearly in Chinese we simply use a noun phrase to convey the meaning expressed in English by a noun or pronoun and a prepositional phrase. In the Chinese noun phrase the equivalent to the recipient in English becomes a modifier. Chinese is structurally simpler than English in this connection.2. Branching and linear sentence patternsEnglish sentences in adult speech or writing are like trees with a trunk, one or more branches and twists. In contrast, many Chinese sentences are like a flowing river without tributaries(从属) or a piece of bamboo without branches. And English allows for branching sentence patterns, the adverbial clauses in complex sentences are in many cases found at the sentence final position as branches. This is true for the adverbial clause of time, cause,