高考英语书面表达写作辅导-论题分类.doc

议论文的论题大体可分为五类，这可以通过分析他们试图回答的问题来确定。一般说来论题类型与文章的结构和所需要的证据密切相关。因此，了解论题的基本类型及其与结构和论据的关系，将有利于你从宏观上驾驭议论文的写作。(1) 事实论题（claims of fact）事实论题意在回答如下问题：Did it happen?Is it true?Does it exit?Is it a fact?例如：The ozone layer is becoming depleted?The increasing population threatens the environment.Men have more opportunities than women in our society.此类，论题的论证主要依靠事实性论据，包括事实、数据、例子、援引权威观点。归纳推理是论证这类问题的一个基本思路，既从对几个基本论证的讨论得出结论。例如：Besides physical hazard and anxieties, competitive sports pose psychological dangers for children, Martin Rablovsky, a former sports editor for the New York Times, said in all his years of watching young children play organized sports. He noticed very few of them smiling. “Ive seen children enjoying a spontaneous prepratice scrimmage become somber and serious when the coachs whistle blows,” Rablovsky said .”The spirits of the play disappears, and sports become joblike.” The primary goal of a professional athlete winning-is not appropriate for children. Their goals should be having fun, learning, being with friends. Although winning does add to the fun, too many adults lose sight of what matters and make winning the most important goal. Several students have shown that when children are asked whether they would rather be warming the bench on a winning team or playing regularly on a losing team, about 90 percent choose the later.在这一段里，作者运用了权威人士的发言和调查数据来如下事实论题，Besides physical hazards and anxieties ,competitive sports pose psychological dangers for children.(2) 定义论题（claims of defination）定义论题旨在回答下列问题：What it is ?What does it mean?What is it like?How should it be classified?How should it be interpreted?How does its usual meaning change in a particular context?例如：A happy person is not a person of a set of certain circumstance ,but rather a person with certain set of attitudes.Success consists of four simple things-to live a lot, to love a lot, to laugh a lot, from it all, to learn a lot.The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make ones mind a pleasant place in which to spend ones time.定义论题的论证往往建立在权威观点、可靠资料、类比及例证之上。例如：Love is something like the clouds that were in the sky before the sun came out. You cannot touch the clouds, you know; but you feel the rain and know how glad the flowers and the thirsty earth are to have it after a hot day. You cannot touch the love either, but you feel the sweetness it pours into everything. Without love you would not be happy and want to play.通过一个形象的类比，作者生动地揭示了love的含义。值得提醒的是，定义论题通常不会成为一片议论文的支配主题，而是出现在论证的开头或过程之中。对核心概念的定义往往是有效论证的基础。例如，要论证一部电影是否是黄色影片，作者有必要先给黄色影片下一个定义。否则，论证将无法展开。（3）因果论题（claims of cause）因果论题旨在回答如下问题：What cause it?Where did it come from?Why did it happen?What are the effects?What probably will be the results both on a short-term and a long-term basis?例如：The United Stateschampions human rights in foreign countries to further its own economic self-interests.The long-term effects of inadequate funding for AIDS research will be a disastrous worldwide epidemic.Examinations exert a negative impact on education.因果论题的常用论题是事实、数据、类比。演绎法和归纳法都可以为因果论题提供有效地论证。因果关系的论证可以是先描述原因，后分析结果；或反过来，先描述结果，后讨论原因。例如：Many of todays young people have a difficult time seeing any moral dimension to their actions. There are a lot of reasons why thats true, but none more than a failed system of education eschew teaching the traditional values that bind Americans together as a society and a culture. That failed approach ,called “decision-making,” was introduced in schools 25 years ago. It tells children to decide for themselves what is right and what is wrong. It replaced “character education”. Character education didnt ask children to reinvent the moral wheel; instead, it encourage them to practice habits of courage, justice and self-control.在这一段因果论证里，作者首先在主题句里提出了结果，然后以事实为证据追究其原因。（4）价值论题（claims of value） 价值论题回答如下问题：Is it good or bad?How bad?How good?Of what worth it is?Is it moral or immoral?Who thinks so?What do these people value?What values or criteria should I use to determine its goodness or badness?Are my values different from other peoples values or from the authors values?例如：Computers are a valuable addition to modern society.Viewing television is a wasteful activity.The study of history is a waste of time, 对于价值论题，除了可以运用一般的事实性论据以外，作者还可以借助于“价值论据”也就是建立一个评价标准，并与读者形成共识，然后将这一标准运用到所探讨的具体问题上。例如：A dishwasher is not very useful. One way to judge whether a household appliance is helpful is to see whether it saves time. However ,a dishwasher actually “take” time. For example, because a dishwasher takes a lot of water to run, most people like to make sure it is completely full before they run it. As a result, when there are a few dishes to be washed, the dishes are not cleaned immediately. While these dishes sit in the dishwater, the leftover food dries, and this dried-on food takes more time to clean of the dishes. On the other hand, when there are many dishes to wash, not all of the dishes can fit in the same time. Consequently, some dishes must be left unwashed until the first set of dishes is cleaned. Waiting for those dishes takes time. So, how can people say that dishwasher save time?在上述论述里，作者首先确定一个评判标准：One way to judge whether a household appliance is helpful is to see whether it saves time.然后将这一标准运用到dishwasher上，并通过实例论证了主题句中提出得了论点。 (5) 对策论题 （claims of policy）对策论题回答如下问题：What should we do?How should we act?What should future police be?How can we solve this problem?What concrete course of action should we pursue to solve the problem?值得注意的是，其他几类论题主要设计过去和现在，而对策论题更多关注的是将来。例如：Universities should require every student to take a variety of courses outside of the students field of study.Students should bring a certain skepticism to whatever they study.The purpose of education should be to provide students with a value system, a standard, and a set of ideas-not to prepare them for a specific job.对于对策论题，作者可以运用多方面的论据。由于对策论题的目的是要说服读者采取某种行动，因此作者在运用事实性论据的基础上应该注意针对读者的需求和情感来调动他们行动的积极性。例如：The main reason why professors give frequent exams is that when they do, and when they provide feedback to students on how well they are doing, students learn more in the course and perform better on major exams, projects, and papers. It makes sense that in a challenging course containing a great deal of material, students will learn more of it and put it to better use if they have to apply or “pratice” it frequently on exams, which also help them find out how much they are learning and what they need to go over again. A recent Harvard study notes students “strong preference for fr