胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四章From word to t.ppt

1 ChapterFourFromWordtoText 2 Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures 3 Whatarethethreebasicsyntacticrelations 4 Syntacticrelationscanbeanalysedintothreekinds relationsofpositionrelationsofsubstitutabilityrelationsofco occurrence 1 Syntacticrelations syntacticrelations 5 Whatispositionalrelation Whataretheothernamesforit Whathappensifthewordorderischanged 6 1 1RelationsofPosition Forlanguagetofulfillitscommunicativefunction itmusthaveawaytomarkthegrammaticalrolesofthevariousphrasesthatcanoccurinaclause TheboykickedtheballNP1NP2SubjectObject 7 Positionalrelation orWORDORDER referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguage onetendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall Forexample 8 Theboykickedtheball Boytheballkickedthe TheballkickedtheboyTheteachersawthestudentsThestudentssawtheteacher 9 PositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSyntagmaticRelations 组合关系 observedbyF deSaussure TheyarealsocalledHorizontalRelationsorsimplyChainRelations 10 Wordorderisamongthethreebasicways wordorder geneticandareal来自一个地区的classifications toclassifylanguagesintheworld SVO VSO SOV OVS OSV andVOS EnglishbelongstoSVOtype thoughthisdoesnotmeanthatSVOistheonlypossiblewordorder 11 Whatisrelationsofsubstitutability Whataretheothernames 12 1 2RelationofSubstitutability TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure The smiles manboygirl 13 Italsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset strongmanThetallestboysmiles prettygirlyesterday Hewenttherelastweek thedaybefore 14 ThisisalsocalledAssociativeRelationsbySaussure andParadigmatic聚合RelationsbyHjemslev Tomakeitmoreunderstandable theyarecalledVerticalRelationsorChoiceRelations 15 Whatistherelationofco occurrence Istherelationsyntagmaticorparadigmatic 16 1 3RelationofCo occurrence Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit orrequire theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence Forinstance anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective s andfollowedbyaverbalphrase 17 Relationsofco occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations partlytoparadigmaticrelations 18 2 Grammaticalconstructionanditsconstituents 2 1GrammaticalConstructionAnysyntacticstringofwordsrangingfromsentencesoverphrasalstructurestocertaincomplexlexemes anappleateanappleMaryateanapple 19 2 2ConstituentsandPhraseStructure Constituentisapartofalargerlinguisticunit Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction thegirl NP atetheapple VP thegirlatetheapple S 20 ImmediateConstituent直接成分Analysis ICAnalysis Thegirlatetheapple 21 PhraseStructureTreediagram SNPVPDetNVNPDetNThegirlatetheapple 22 23 Bracketing Bracketingisnotascommoninuse butitisaneconomicnotationinrepresentingtheconstituent phrasestructureofagrammaticalunit The girl ate the apple S NP DetThe Ngirl VP Vate NP Detthe Napple 24 Practise Usethetreediagramtoanalysethefollowingsentences Theboywascrying Heboughtanoldcarwithhisfirstpaycheque 25 What sthedifferencebetweenendocentricandexocentricconstructions Whataretheirrespectivesyntacticconstructions 26 2 3EndocentricandExocentricConstructions Endocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents i e awordoragroupofwords whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead Usuallynounphrases verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetotheHead 27 28 Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole thatis thereisnodefinable Centre or Head insidethegroup usuallyincludingthebasicsentence theprepositionalphrase thepredicate verb object construction andtheconnective be complement construction 29 Theboysmiled Neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentencestructureasawhole Hehidbehindthedoor Neitherconstituentcanfunctionasanadverbial Hekickedtheball Neitherconstituentstandsfortheverb objectsequence Johnseemedangry Afterdivision theconnectiveconstructionnolongerexists 30 twomaintypesofendocentricconstructions Whatarethecharacteristicsofcoordinations Whatarethecharacteristicsofsubordinations Whataretheirrespectiveplacesinrecursivenessoflanguages 31 2 4CoordinationandSubordination Endocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents CoordinationSubordination 32 Coordination CoordinationisacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand butandor Thesetwoormorewordsorphrasesorclauseshaveequivalentsyntacticstatus eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally 33 CoordinationofNPs NPthelady or NPthetiger CoordinationofVPs VPgotothelibrary and VPreadabook CoordinationofPPs PPdownthestairs and PPoutthedoor CoordinationofAPs APquiteexpensive and APverybeautiful CoordinationofSs SJohnlovesMary and SMarylovesJohntoo 34 Subordination Subordinationreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus onebeingdependentupontheother andusuallyaconstituentoftheother Thesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifythehead Consequently theycanbecalledmodifiers 35 twodogsHead Mybrother candrink wine HeadSwimminginthelake isfun Head Thepepperwas hotbeyondendurance Head 36 Subordinateclauses Clausescanbeusedassubordinateconstituents Therearethreebasictypesofsubordinateclauses complementclausesadjunct oradverbial clausesrelativeclauses 37 Johnbelieves thattheairplanewasinventedbyanIrishman complementclause Elizabethopenedherpresents beforeJohnfinishedhisdinner adverbialclause Thewoman thatIlove ismovingtothesouth relativeclause subordinateclause 38 Whatarethebasicfunctionaltermsinsyntax Whatisasubject Whatisapredicate Whatisapredicator Whatisanobject 39 3 SyntacticFunction Thesyntacticfunctionshowstherelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused Namesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects objects predicators modifiers complements etc 40 3 1Subject Insomelanguages subjectreferstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase ThetypicalexamplecanbefoundinLatin wheresubjectisalwaysinnominativecase suchaspaterandfiliusinthefollowingexamples paterfiliumamat thefatherlovestheson patrumfiliusamat thesonlovesthefather 41 InEnglish thesubjectofasentenceisoftensaidtobetheagent orthedoeroftheaction whiletheobjectisthepersonorthingacteduponbytheagent Thisdefinitionseemstoworkforthesesentences MaryslappedJohn AdogbitBill 42 butisclearlywronginthefollowingexamples Johnwasbittenbyadog Johnunderwentmajorheartsurgery Inordertoaccountforthecaseofsubjectinpassivevoice wehavetwootherterms grammaticalsubject John and logicalsubject adog 43 Anothertraditionaldefinitionofthesubjectis whatthesentenceisabout i e topic Again thisseemstoworkformanysentences suchasBillisaverycraftyfellow butfailsinothers suchas Jackisprettyreliable but BillIdon ttrust AsforBill Iwouldn ttakehispromisesveryseriously 44 Allthreesentencesseemtobe about Bill thuswecouldsaythatBillisthetopicofallthreesentences Theabovesentencesmakeitclearthatthetopicisnotalwaysthegrammaticalsubject Whatcharacteristicsdosubjectshave subject 45 Wordorder Subjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinthestatement Sallycollectsstamps CollectsSallystamps 46 Pro forms ThefirstandthirdpersonpronounsinEnglishappearinaspecialformwhenthepronounisasubject whichisnotusedwhenthepronounoccursinotherpositions Helovesme Ilovehim Wethrewstonesatthem Theythrewstonesatus 47 Agreementwiththeverb Inthesimplepresenttense an sisaddedtotheverbwhenathirdpersonsubjectissingular butthenumberandpersonoftheobjectoranyotherelementinthesentencehavenoeffectatallontheformoftheverb Sheangershim Theyangerhim Sheangersthem 48 Contentquestions Ifthesubjectisreplacedbyaquestionword whoorwhat therestofthesentenceremainsunchanged asinJohnstoletheQueen spicturefromtheBritishCouncil WhostoletheQueen spicturefromtheBritishcouncil 49 WhatwouldJohnsteal ifhehadthechance WhatdidJohnstealfromtheBritishCouncil WheredidJohnstealtheQueen spicturefrom Whenanyotherelementofthesentenceisreplacedbyaquestionword anauxiliaryverbmustappearbeforethesubject 50 Tagquestion Atagquestionisusedtoseekconfirmationofastatement Italwayscontainsapronounwhichrefersbacktothesubject andnevertoanyotherelementinthesentence JohnlovesMary doesn the MarylovesJohn doesn tshe JohnlovesMary doesn tshe 51 3 2Predicate Predicatereferstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectwereconsideredtogether Itusuallyexpressesactions processes andstatesthatrefertothesubject Theboyisrunning process Peterbroketheglass action Janemustbemad state Thewordpredicatorissuggestedforverborverbsincludedinapredicate 52 3 3Object Objectisalsoatermhardtodefine Since traditionally subjectcanbedefinedasthedoeroftheaction objectmayrefertothe receiver or goal ofanaction anditisfurtherclassifiedintoDirectObjectandIndirectObject Motherboughtadoll Mothergavemysisteradoll IODO 53 Insomeinflectinglanguages objectismarkedbycaselabels theaccusativecasefordirectobject andthedativecaseforindirectobject InEnglish object isrecognizedbytracingitsrelationtowordorder aftertheverbandpreposition andbyinflections ofpro nouns Mothergaveadolltomysister Johnkickedme 54 Modernlinguistssuggestthatobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomesubjectinapassivetransformation Johnbroketheglass TheglasswasbrokenbyJohn PetersawJane JanewasseenbyPeter object 55 Althoughtherearenominalphrasesinthefollowing theyarebynomeansobjectsbecausetheycannotbetransformedintopassivevoice Hediedlastweek Thematchlastedthreehours HechangedtrainsatManchester TrainswerechangedbyhimatManchester 56 4 Category Thetermcategoryreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits Categoriesofthenoun number gender caseandcountabilityCategoriesoftheverb tense aspect voice 57 4 4 1Number Whatarethecontrastsinnumber Whatconstructscanreflectnumber 58 4 1Number Numberisagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular dual plural etc InEnglish numberismainlyobservedinnouns andthereareonlytwoforms singularandplural suchasdog dogs Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs suchasHelaughs Theylaugh thisman thesemen 59 Inotherlanguages forexample French themanifestationofnumbercanalsobefoundinadjectivesandarticles lechevalroyal theroyalhorse leschevauxroyaux theroyalhorses 60 4 4 2Gender Gender naturalgender grammaticalgenderIsthereanatrualcorrelationbetweennaturalgenderandgrammaticalgender Whatconstructscanmanifestgender 61 4 2Gender Suchcontrastsas masculine feminine neuter animate inanimate etc fortheanalysisofwordclasses Thoughthereisacorrelationbetweennaturalgenderandgrammaticalgender theassignmentmayseemquitearbitraryinmanycases Forinstance inLatin ignis fire ismasculine whileflamma flame isfeminine 62 Englishgendercontrastcanonlybeobservedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnouns and theyaremainlyofthenaturalgendertype he she itprince princessauthor authoress 63 InFrench genderismanifestedalsobothinadjectivesandarticles beaucadeau finegift bellemaison finehouse Lecadeauestbeau Thegiftisgood Lamaisonestbelle Thehouseisbeautiful 64 Sometimesgenderchangesthelexicalmeaningaswell forexample inFrench lepoele thestove lapoele thefryingpan lependule thependulum lapendule theclock 65 4 4 3Case Case usedtoindentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence WhatarethecasesconcernedwithEnglishnouns 66 4 3Case Thecasecategoryisusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence InLatingrammar casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword andaregiventheterms accusative nominative dative etc TherearefivecasesinancientGreekandeightinSanskrit Finnishhasasmanyasfifteenformallydistinctcasesinnouns eachwithitsownsyntacticfunction 67 InEnglish caseisaspecialformofthenounwhichfrequentlycorrespondstoacombinationofprepositionandnoun anditisrealizedinthreechannels inflectionfollowingaprepositionwordorderasmanifestedinteacher teacher swith toamanJohnkickedPeter PeterkickedJohn 68 4 4Agreement Agreement orconcord maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallalso becharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategory orcategories 69 Thissyntacticrelationshipmaybeanaphoric aswhenapronounagreeswithitsantecedent Whoseisthispen Oh it stheoneIlost oritmayinvolvearelationbetweenaheadanditsdependent aswhenaverbagreeswithitssubjectandobject Eachpersonmayhaveonecoin 70 Agreementofnumberbetweennounsandverbs Thismanruns Thebirdflies Thesemenrun Thesebirdsfly 71 4 5 1Phrase Praseisasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword andlackingthesubject predicatestructuretypicalofclauses WhatarethebasictypesofphrasesinEnglish What sthedifferencebetweenphraseandwordgroup CantheexamplesinEx4 36becalledwordgroups 72 SentenceClausePhraseWord 5 Phrase ClauseandSentence 73 thethreetallestgirls nominalphrase hasbeendoing verbalphrase extremelydifficult adjectivalphrase tothedoor prepositionalphrase veryfast adverbialphrase phrase 74 75 Thebestthingwouldbetoleaveearly It sgreatforamantobefree Havingfinishedtheirtask theycametohelpus Johnbeingaway Billhadtodothework Filledwithshame heleftthehouse Alloursavingsgone westartedlookingforjobs It snousecryingoverspiltmilk Doyoumindmyopeningthewindow 76 Sentence traditionalapproach simpleSentencecomplexnon simplecompound 77 Sentence functionalapproach Yes noInterrogativeIndicativewh DeclarativeSentenceJussiveImperativeOptative 78 Basicsentencetypes Bolinger Motherfell Nominal intransitiveverbal Motherisyoung Nominal copula complement MotherlovesDad Nominal transitiveverbal nominal MotherfedDadbreakfast Nominal transitiveverbal nominal nominal Thereistime There existential nominal 79 Basicsentencetypes Quirk SVCMaryiskind anurse SVAMaryishere inthehouse SVThechildislaughing SVOSomebodycaughttheball SVOCWehaveprovedhimwrong afool SVOAIputtheplateonthetable SVOOShegivesmeexpensivepresents 80 6 Recursiveness Recursivenessmainlymeansthataphrasalconstituentcanbeembeddedwithinanotherconstituenthavingthesamecategory butithasbecomeanumbrellatermsuchimportantlinguisticphenomenaascoordinationandsubordination conjoiningandembedding hypotacticandparatactic Allthesearemeanstoextendsentences Howlongcanasentencebe 81 Theoretically thereisnolimittotheembeddingofonerelativeclauseintoanotherrelativeclause solongasitdoesnotbecomeanobstacletosuccessfulcommunication Thesameholdstruefornominalclausesandadverbialclauses Imetamanwhohadasonwhosewifesoldcookiesthatshehadbakedinherkitchenthatwasfullyequippedwithelectricalappliancesthatwerenew 82 John ssisterJohn ssister shusbandJohn ssister shusband suncleJohn ssister shusband suncle sdaughter etc thathouseinBeijingthegardenofthathouseinBeijingthetreeinthegardenofthathouseinBeijingabirdonthetreeinthegardenofthathouseinBeijing 83 6 1Conjoining Conjoining coordination Conjunctions