工程管理专业英语THE_CONSTRUCTION_INDUSTRY及翻译

CHAPTER 1 THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY CHAPTER OUTLINE INTRODUCTION TYPE OF INDUSTRY INDUSTRY SECTORS Residential Sector Commercial Building Sector Infrastructure and Heavy Highway Sector Industrial Sector RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT TRENDS IN THE INDUSTRY Construction Ethics Demographics Opportunities CONCLUSION STUDENT LEARNING OBJECTIVES In this chapter you will learn the following 1 The principle characteristics that define the construction industry 2 The four major sectors of construction projects 3 The nature of research and development within the construction industry 4 Current trends within the construction industry INTRODUCTION To form by assembling parts is the dictionary definition for con struct but the phrase also is a metaphor for the construction process itself Just as divergent materials come together to form a structure so too does a diverse group of people come together to make the project possible To bring together numerous independent businesses and corporate personalities into one goal oriented process is the peculiar challenge of the construction industry The organizationaJ cultures of architects engineers owners builders manufacturers and suppliers may seem to work against the real need to forge a partnership that will ensure the success of a project Yet despite these very real chaIJenges in the industry construction projects do get completed In fact it is difficult to think of an industry that is more basic to our economy and to our daily lives The highways we drive on the bridges we cross the water we drink the fuel we burn all are made possible by the activities of the construction industry Likewise where we shop where we work where we worship and learn and where we live all exist because of the industry Designers have visions but until the contractor builds those visions are just dreams on a sheet of paper Construction is also very interwined with other aspects of our lives It affects and is affected by developments in technology computers government policies labor relations and economic and political practices Take for instance the technological leap of the skyscraper Until the late 1800s most buildings were four or five stories high Masonry supported the structure from the ground As the height of the building increased the massing at the ground level also increased to support the additional Ioad Thus if the building were built too high the mass at the bottom would be too thick Another limitation to height was that people could only practicably climb four or five stories Because floors on the upper levels were difficult to rent Owners had no economic incentive to build any higher But with the development of cheap methods of producing iron and steel and the invention of the elevator architects began designing higher buildings This spurred construction activity landowners were motivated to develop these new buildings because the return on their investment was higher Over time as technological advances have allowed the skyscraper has gotten taller Innovations in robotics and computer modeling have also affected the construction industry By using computers for modeling structures and imitating wind and seismic loads architects and engineers can better anticipate nature s constraints and create better designs to counteract them With robots directing equipment during construction contractors can gain more control over processes that require precision for success such as the construction of the underwater tunnel between France and England The desire for such projects leads to the development of technologies to make them possible which in turn encourages similar projects to go forward TYPES OF INDUSTRY Construction is big business in the United States According to the Bureau of Laborn Statistics the industry employs nearly 6 million people and represents 5 percent of the work force making it the nation s largest single employer The total value of construction in 2000 was 815 billion which represents 8 1 percent of the gross domestic product GDP Opportunities in construction have increased significantly in the last ten years Construction employment in 2000 has risen by 49 percent since 1990 This is in contrast to employment as a whole which has increased 21 percent Although construction related jobs are some of the best paying in the country they are often not a person s first career choice Look at any construction company and you will find people from a varietV of backgrounds who through experience and continuing cducation have been promoted through the ranks This profile is starting to change however with the profcssionalization of the field and the introduction of undergraduate and graduate construction managemcnt programs at colleges and universities Both the American Institute of Constructors AIC and the Construction Management AssociaOon of America CMAA have initiated professional certification programs Construction projects can be awe inspiring in their breadth and complexity from the Egyptian pyramids and Gothic cathedrals to soaring skyscrapers and enormous bridges Yet the industry itself does not own thcse products nor does it control their supply and demand In fact construction has relatively few assets compared with those of other industries Its success or failure depends on the qualities of its people rather than on its technology or product In this way it is very much a service industry one composed of many small businesses especially in the residential and commercial building sectors Construction does not require a patent or a large capitalinvestment anyone with motivation technical skills and a sufficient cash flow can start a business and be successful However because of the industry s cyclical nature it inevitably has slow periods Without capital to get them through these slow times these small moru and pop businesses are at risk and many are forced out of the market The risk factor is much higher in construction than it is in other industries because outside factors such as government funding demographics and market trends largely determine demand Another reason for this high risk lies in the unpredictable nature of the work itself Since construction takes place outside it depends on weather conditions Any extremes can affect productivity level damage materials and work in place create unsafe conditions and even shut down the site entirely Moreover the industry is custom oriented meaning that it is difficult to use mass production techniques in either materials or methods Each project has its own learning curve for both management and labor Because all these factors make it difficult to accurately predict how much money will be necessary to complete the project the industry has a higher risk of losing money than do industries that rely on more predictable factors Financial institutions medical services accounting firms and real estate companies have all been involved in recent mergers consolidations and conglomerations Construction however is a study of contrasts At one time general contractors constructed almost the entire project with their own work crews But as buildings become more technically complex and the business of building them more sophisticated the industry has turned increasingly to specialty trades Thus the contractor s role has evolved from boss to manager However in other aspects of the industry the reverse is happening While the technical complexities of projects have strongly influenced the trend toward subcontractor specialization these same complexities are merging owners contractors and designers into more collaborative units In a very real way this trend is leading constructors back to their roots as the master builders INDUSTRY SECTORS Most designers and builders concentrate their business and build expertise in a specific sector of the construction industry each of which is supported by separate material and equipment suppliers manufacturers and subcontractors These distinct types have evolved because major differences exist in how projects within each sector are funded in the building methods involved and in the manner in vrhich designers builders and owners interact These sectors are usually separated into the following four categories 1 Residential 2 Commericalbuilding 3 Infrastructure and heavy highway 4 Industrial Residential Sector The residential construction sector is comprised of individual homes small condominiums and apartment complexes What all these building types have in common apart from the fact that they house people are the conditions under which they are constructed Such projects tend to be privately funded by individual owners for their own use or for speculation They are typically designed by architects although the plan may come from a mass produced catalog In some instances the homeowners or the builder may design the structure Within this sector there has been some movement toward pre manufactured homes and products But despite the tremendous potential in developing pre manufactured components for the residential market the tendency is still to build most components on site As a site built product residential construction uses fairly low technology Not surprisingly most of the mom and pop operations are found in this sector Because the technology needed to build residential buildings is readily available the capital required to step into the business is fairly small a pickup truck some basic tools and an understanding of construction Supporting these operations are many other small businesses lumberyards tool and equipment rentals specialty suppliers and hardware stores When the economy is strong these small businesses do well but because residential sector projects are privately funded and homogenous in type many companies go out of business when money gets tight Interest rates and government policy toward housing investment also influence the sector s health In a good economy about one half of construction spending takes place in the residential sector Commercial Building Sector This sector includes office buildings large apartment complexes shopping malls theaters schools universities and hospitals Like residential buildings these structures tend to be privately funded although some public funding is usually available for schools and hospitals They are typically designed by an architect with support from an engineer and are built by general contractors as bid projects or by construction managers who assist during pre construction and coordinate the construction The technical sophistication necessary for success is greater than in the residential sector as is the capital needed to enter the field These factors lead to fewer players Within this sector there is some specialization Hospitals which require a special knowledge of the activities that happen in them tend to be technically complex to design and require tight quality control during construction Commercial structures such as shopping malls office buildings and theaters are built for quick turnaround and an eye to marketing and retail image Firms build their reputations in these specialized fields and owners choose designers and contractors based on their reputations Larger firms tend to have various divisions that concentrate on specific segments of the market meaning that they are generally able to weather economic ups and downs Annual construction expenditures are high for this sector accounting for more than 30 percent of the construction market However the sector is highly dependent on regional economic health Houston in the 1970s California in the 1980s and the northeast in the 1990s experienced tremendous economic growth and construction success But such success inevitably leads to overbuilding which in turn leads to a real estate glut and very little continued construction activity as the economy slows and overbuilt real estate is absorbed Such factors are part of the construction cycle Infrastructure and Heavy Highway Sector Construction in this sector enables the distribution of goods and people Examples include roadways bridges canals dams and tunnels These projects are designed principally by civil engineers and built by heavy construction contractors who have engineering backgrounds or support Because of the complexity of the projects and the importance of equipment and technical know how relatively few firms are involved and those that are tend to be very large Most infrastructure projects are publicly funded because they serve the public s needs Without a strong framework of infrastructure the nation s productivity decreases and our standard of living is affected However the current condition of infrastructure in the United States requires greater attention Consider the following statistics from the U S Markets Construction Overview 1998 1 By 1990 one third of the interstate roadway system had outlived its intended design life 2 In spite of increased export and import activities and the use of larger more cost effective vessels only four U S ports can handle large ships 3 The number of seriously congested airports will increase from six to seventeen by the year 2002 4 It is estimated that we will need to build 3 353 new sewage treatment facilities by the year 2012 to keep up with demand The need for building or rebuilding in this sector is great Infrastructure projects tend to last for a long time and to continue despite regional economic ups and downs Although they have traditionally been publicly funded a growing trend toward partnership with private industries may offset their impact on taxes Industrial Sector Steel mills petroleum refineries chemical processing plants and automobile profacilities These projects are defined by the production activities within the facility rather than the facility itself The design and construction of the shell depend on the needs of the process and production equipment In the United States most of these facilities are privately funded However in other countries money may come from public sources Quality and time are extremely important in these projects productivity and therefore return on investment depend on how well the facility pcrforms Because of the detailed complexity of each facility this sector includes many specialties Only a few designers and builders are qualified to work on any particular type of facility Since the process technology is critical designers and builders need to collaboratc closely throughout the project As a result builders and designers often deliver services as a single company Opportunities in this sector have grown The downsizing of the industry coupled with more efficient production processes has resulted in Increased demand for U S products and therefore increased demand for new or refurbished facilities In addition the urgent need to clean up hazardous materials at old industrial sites has spawned the new field of environmental construction This field combines the talents of scientists and engineers with specialized construction personnel Presently these sites are being cleaned using federal Superfund money or state funds To date 250 000 hazardous materials sites have been identified in the United States RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Traditionally construction focuses on cash flow and is almost completely driven by projects and their schedules As a result there is little incentive for individual companies to invest in research and development except in a propriety manner The little investment that does exist is at the university level Few U S engineering and construction companies have done any significant research aimed at improving construction processes Not only are most projects pushed through with tight timetables but new ideas risk failure and lawsuits Thus designers and owners tend to be very conservative when specifying products to be used on their projects Moreover even if a company does successfully invest in a new technology it has no way to protect its investment Most construction technologies are not patentable meaning that a competitor could easily use them on its next project International companies are starting to challenge this profile for example Japanese companies which spend up to forty times as much as the United States on basic research and development in construction Organizations such as the Center for Building Technology and the Construction Industry Institute which are aimed at fostering creativity research and innovation are starting to influence changes To be effective however labor the academy government and business must work together TRENDS IN THE INDUSTRY The construction industry has an image problem According to the Jobs Rated Almanac July 2000 today s youth ranks construction 247th out of a possible 250 career choices Only lumberj ack oil field laborer and fishing came in lower Whenever a contractor walks out on a homeowner before ajob is completed a person is injured or killed on a construction site traffic is disrupted because of construction activity or a labor action closes down a job site the industry s image is further tarnished Unfortunately it has few positive images to counteract the negative ones In fact construction is one of the noblest professions Working with your hands solving problems in the field working collaboratively with many other disciplines to create a real product that will be handed down to future generations this is construction It is hard to imagine another profession that has such a physical impact on the quality of people s lives The industry has much to be proud of but it hasn t done a good job of letting others know about its accomplishments One challenge for the future will be to educate people about the industry Ef forts at the high school level and even in the lower grades will help to attract youngsters to the field as well as counteract negative images Programs such as City Build which pairs high school students with design and building professionals and Youth Bui