心理学专业外语翻译第17页.doc

Psychology and Science3THEORIES AND HYPOTHESESA science should involve theories which provide hypotheses to be tested in order to support or refute the theories.The theories themselves should provide general laws or principles to fulfil the aims of science understanding, prediction , and control .1 understanding Theories should provide understanding by beingorderly （theories should organise facts and find regularities and patterns to generate laws）.internally consistent （different parts of the theory should not contradict each other）parsimonious(provide the greatest possible explanation in the most economic way)true！（theories should correctly explain reality）2 Prediction A good theory should generate lots of bold ,precise hypotheses to stimulate research to support or refute the theory .According to Karl Popper scientific theories should be refutable(able to be 心理学与科学理论与假设科学应包括基本的理论，这些理论提供的假设能够被测量，从而支持或拒绝这些理论，同时，理论本身应当提供一般性的法则或原理，以实现科学的三项目标理解、预测和控制。1 理解理论应当解释客观世界是什么（关于可理解性主要从以下几个方面理解）有序性理论通过组织论据，按照一定的规则和模式形成一定法则内在一致性理论的各部分之间不相矛盾，具有一致性。简约性以最经济的方式进行最有可能的诠释准确性理论应该准确地解释现实2 预测好的理论能够产生大量的大胆而又准确的假设，以激励大量相关研究来支持或反驳这个理论。根据卡尔的研究，科学理论应该shown wrong) and research should aim to falsify rather than support theories since it is all too easy to find support to fit your theory ,especially if you expect to find it .Falsification is best achieved by advancing bold and precise hypotheses, and if a theory is falsified then it should be rejected .Thus Popper is suggesting that science advances through refutation rather than support .This is why we ensure that we include a null hypothesis. Another philosopher of science ,Imre Lakatos , suggests that theories should be given a chance to prove themselves first ,so they can develop . Lakatos proposes that theories or paradigms should have a hard core of crucial assumptions and a protective belt of auxiliary hypotheses this belt can support being falsified to a certain extent （perhaps the first experiments made type 2 errors） but the hard core should remain unfalsified for the theory to remain credible. Good theories, he added , should also provide a positive heuristic a future research program to generate new hypotheses and to produce unexpected findings. Theories provide laws and principles to具有可证伪性，并且研究也应去证实理论可能是错的，而不是一味的支持。因为太容易找到适合自己理论的支持性证据，尤其是如果你想找到。正因为这大胆而又明确的假设使得真伪性验证工作取得了重大成效。如果一种理论是虚假的，就应该拒绝，因此卡尔就建议科学的进步在于反驳而不是一味的支持。这就是为什么我们保证我们有一个虚无假设。另一位科学哲学家（英）伊姆雷拉卡托斯，提出理论首先要证实它们自己的正确性，这样才能够发展进步。Lakatos建议，无论是理论还是范式都应该有一帮中坚分子坚定地保护重要假设和一条辅助假设，而这一保护带在某种程度上要支持被证实其虚假性，然而，这一保护带应该保持理论的真实性和可信性。Lakatos补充说，一个好的理论还应该有正面的启发式论据未来的研究计划，以产生新的假设，产生意想不到的结果。理论可以提供一定的法则和原理来预测未来，当然，它是建立在以下条件基础上的predict the future,but this can only occur ifa. a deterministic/nomothetic view is taken ,rather than a freewill or idiographic approach .b. induction is accepted , i.e. that we can generalise from a limited number of observations to general laws .Induction can never prove anything 100,however ,because it is impossible to observe all possible data at any one time and we can never prove that our next observation will not refute our law . Induction is the basis for inferential statistics which talk about the probability of chance factors causing the results.3 Control theories should be useful and have practical implications, such as solving problems and improving the human condition. However , complete control may be impossible in practice , due to the complexity of situations and the probabilistic nature of scientific laws . Knowing the high probability that something will occur 99 will not guarantee that it will occur on a certain occasion .Ethical issues are also raised concerning control who should have itA、采用确定性的/一般性的观点,而不是一个自由意志或个体的方法。B、归纳法我们可以通过有限的统计观察资料归纳出一般规律，然而，归纳不能100证明事物，这是因为它无法一次观察到所有可能的数据，而且我们也从来就不可能预测下一个观察数据就一定不会与我们的结论相违背。归纳法是统计学的基础，它是探讨偶然性因素所导致的结果产生的概率的统计。3 控制理论应有益并要有实用性。例如它可以帮人们解决问题，改善人类的生存环境。然而，完全可控在现实中是不可能实现的，由于复杂的情形和科学规律的基于概率的或然性的特点,即便了解事件发生的概率为99，你也不能确保它一定会发生。涉及到控制的伦理问题应运而生谁应该得到它，它应当为谁服务？and whose purposes should it serve?SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGYA science should test its hypotheses in fair and objective ways , meaning its terms should be operationalised and its methods should be standardised ,controlled and replicable.PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES AND HYPOTHSISThe different approaches to psychology fulfill these principles to varying degrees ：（1） Psychoanalysis has great explanatory power and understanding of behaviour ,but has been accused of only explaining behaviour after the event ,not predicting what will happen in advance and of being unfalsifiable/unrefutable . Some have argued that psychoanalysis has approached the status more of a religion than a science, but it is not alone in being accused of being unfalsifiable （evolutionary theory has too why is anything the way it is？because it has evolved that way！）and like that all theories that are difficult to refute the possibility exists that it is actually right .Kline(1984) argues that psychoanalytic theory can be broken down into testable hypotheses and tested科学的方法论科学应该以公正客观的方式测试它的假设，这就意味着其条款应该具有可操作性及其方法应标准化、具有可控性和可验证性。心理理论与假设心理学不同的方法在不同程度上践行着这些原则（1）精神分析学 对人的行为有很好的解释和理解，但它只能用来描述事件发生后的行为表现，而无法提前预测未来发展，也不具有可证伪性和反驳性。有的人认为精神分析学在地位上更接近一种宗教而非科学，当然像这样被认为不可证伪的理论不止它一个，像所有很难被驳倒的理论一样，也有可能存在着,事实证明确实如此。（进化论也是这样事情为什么是这样的呢？因为它就是这样进化的），像那些所有难以批驳的理论一样可能它们本来就是完全正确的。卡尔认为,精神分析理论可以被分解为能够检验的假设并得到科学的检验。例如，Scodel假定口唇依赖的人更偏scientifically. For example ,Scodel(1957) postulated that orally dependent man would prefer larger breasts（a positive correlation）,but in fact found significantly the opposite（a negative correlation）.Although Freudian theory could also be used to explain this finding (through reaction formation-the subjects were showing exactly the opposite of their unconscious impulses!),Kline has nevertheless pointed out that theory would have been refuted by no significant correlation.（2）The humanistic approach in psychology deliberately steps away from a scientific viewpoint , rejecting determinism in favour of freewill ,aiming to study the individual to arrive at a unique and in depth understanding . The humanistic approach does not have an orderly set of theories(although it does have some core assumptions ) and is not interested in prediction and controlling peoples behaviour-the individuals themselves are the only ones who can and should do that.Miller(1969) in Psychology as a Means of Promoting Human welfare criticises the controlling view of psychology, suggesting that understanding should be the main goal 好大的乳房（正相关），但事实上发现是显著的负相关，尽管弗洛伊德理论也可以用来解释了这一结果，但是卡尔却指出，既然没有显著性的关联，就应该拒绝理论。（2）人本主义刻意与科学的观点保持距离，拒绝决定论而赞成自由意志，旨在对个体的研究得到独特而深刻的理解。人本主义方法并没有一个系统有序的理论，也对预测和控制人们的行为不感兴趣，个人本身是唯一能够和应该做这件事的。心理学作为一种促进人类福利并批判心理学中控制观点的手段，自从他问“谁将实施控制和其利益将归于谁?”以来，它指出理解是科学研究中最主要的目标.of the subject as a science, since he asks who will do the controlling and whose interests will be served by it ？(3) Behaviourism had parsimonious theories of learning ,using a few simple principles (reinforcement, behaviour shaping, generalisation,ect.)to explain a vast variety of behaviour from language acquisition to more development . it advanced bold,precise and refutable hypotheses (such as Hulls drive theory equations)and possessed a hard core of central assumptions ,such as determination from the environment（it was only when this assumption faced overwhelming criticism by the cognitive and ethological theories that behaviourist paradigm was overthrown）. Behaviorists firmly believed in the scientific principles of determinism and orderliness, and thus came up with fairly consistent predictions about when an animal was likely to respond （although they admitted that perfect prediction for any individual was impossible）. The behaviorists used their predictions to control the behavior of both animals （pigeons trained to detect life jackets）and humans （behavioral therapies）and indeed Skinner , in his book Walden (3)行为主义有简洁的学习理论，用一些简单的规则（如强化、行为塑造、概括化等）来解释大量行为，从语言学习到道德发展。它提出了大胆精确的抗辩假说使其拥有一个核心的假设，比如环境决定论(只有当这一理论假设面对认知和习性学理论者如此猛烈的批评时，行为主义者范式才被推翻)。行为主义者坚定相信决定论和整齐性的科学准则,并且也因此提出什么时候动物可能进行反应的相当稳定地预测的方法（虽然他们承认,完美的预测,对任何个人是不可能的）。行为学家使用他们的预测来控制动物 (如鸽子训练来侦测救生衣)和