会计英语-简答题部分.doc

1. Describe the difference among ethnocentric, polycentric, regiocentric, and geocentric management orientations. The premise of an ethnocentric orientation is that home country products and management processes are superior. An ethnocentric company that neither sources inputs from, nor seeks market opportunities in, the world outside the home country is a domestic company. A company that does business abroad while still presuming the superiority of the home country may be classified as an international company. Such a company relies on an extension strategy whereby it would export, without adaptation, products designed for the domestic market. The polycentric orientation that predominates at a multinational company leads to a view of the world in which each country market is different from the others. The marketing mix in a polycentric, multinational company is adapted by local country managers operating with a high degree of autonomy. Managers who are regiocentric or geocentric in their orientations recognize both similarities and differences in world markets. Markets opportunities are pursued using both extension and adaptation strategies. The regiocentric and geocentric orientations are characteristic of global or transnational companies. 2. What are some major trends in the world that will affect marketing? There are numerous driving forces affecting global integration and global marketing. These include: technology, regional economic agreements, market needs and wants, transportation and communications improvements, rising product development costs, quality issues and the growth of transitional/global companies. 3.Explain the differences among a market allocation economic system, a command allocation system, and a mixed system. A market allocation economic system relies on consumer-driven forces of supply and demand to allocate resources. The elements of the marketing mix are important strategic variables that companies use to attract attention to their product and service offerings. In a command allocation system, the state decides what goods will be produced and what enterprises will produce them. Production targets are also set by the state. No “pure” market or command allocation system exists in the world today. 5.Describe the similarities and differences among a free trade area, a customs union, a common market, and an economic union. Give an example of each. All four forms of economic integration eliminate tariffs and quotas among member nations. customs unions, common markets, and economic unions all have common external tariff and quota systems. Common markets and economic unions provide for reducing or eliminated restrictions on people, money, and other factors. An economic union is the most highly evolved form of integration, calling for harmonization of economic policies and institutions. Examples include: free trade area NAFTA; customs union EU and Turkey; common market Central American Common Market (CACM); economic union EU. 7.What is the difference between a low-context culture and a high-context culture? Give an example of a country that is an example of each type, and provide evidence for your answer. How does this apply to marketing? In a low context culture, messages are explicit; words carry most of the information in communication. In a high-context culture, less information is contained in the verbal part of the message. Advertising copy in different countries often reflects this difference. When Infinite (Japan) was first introduced in the US, the commercials showed fields and rocks but no car. The commercials failed in the US where more emphasis is placed in print copy on describing the car or conveying an image in TV ads. 8.Briefly describe some of the differences that relate to marketing between the legal environment of a country that embraces common law as opposed to a country that observes civil law. Common-law countries follow the Anglo-Saxon tradition of relying on precedent established by past judicial decisions. Civillaw countries look to codes as the sources of authority. Under civil law the judicial system is divided into civil, commercial and criminal law thus commercial law has its own administrative structure. In code-law countries, intellectual property rights must be registered whereas in common-law countries, some such as trademarks but not patents are established by prior use. 9.What is the difference between existing, latent, and incipient demand? How might these differences affect the design of a marketing research project? A latent market is, in essence, an undiscovered segment. It is a market in which demand would materialize if an appropriate product were available. Incipient demand is demand that will emerge if a particular economic technological, political or sociocultural trend continues. If a company offers a product before the trend has taken root, it will have little market response. Druckers view of research on the latent demand for a fax machine is a good example of how a project can be effected. If a researcher asked “Would you buy a telephone accessory that cost upward of $1500 and enables you to send, for $1 per page, the same letter the post office delivers for $.25?” The respondent is most likely to answer “no” yet look how fax machines have become a part of our businesses. 10.What is a global market segment? Pick a market that you know something about, and describe the global segments for this market. Global market segmentation is the process of dividing the world into distinct subsets of customers that behave in the same way or have similar needs. Or as one author put it, it is “the process of identifying specific segments whether they be country groups or individual consumer groups of potential customers with homogeneous attributes who are likely to exhibit similar buying behavior. Teenagers are a good example of a global market segment. No matter where you go in the world, teens are wearing jeans, eating at a McDonalds, listening to the same music and smoking. 11.Identify the major geographic and demographic segments in global markets. Geographic segmentation is dividing the world into geographic subsets. The advantage is proximity: markets in geographic segments are closer to each other and easier to visit. However, just because the markets are in the same geographic area does not meant that they are similar. The major geographic markets are: Western Europe, Eastern and Central Europe, North America, Asia-Pacific, Oceania, Latin America, Middle East and Africa. Demographic segmentation is based on measurable characteristics of population such as age, gender, income, education and occupation. 12.What are the alternative tools or strategies for expanding internationally? What are the major advantages and disadvantages of each strategy? Licensing Advantages: Low-cost entry alternative. Allows licensor to circumvent tariffs, quotas, or similar export barriers discussed in Chapter 8. Limits political risk and risk of expropriation. Disadvantages: A limited form of participation; licensor generally has no control over marketing program associated with product produced under license. Financial upside limited by royalty rate. Licensees can become competitors. Joint ventures Advantages: Allows for sharing of risk and combining complementary strengths, especially local market knowledge of target market partner. May be the entry mode most strongly supported by target market government. Disadvantages: Corporate cultures and other interests of foreign partner and local partner may clash. Lack of mutual understanding frequently leads to “divorce.” Sharing means less control than in 100 percent ownership. Direct Investment/Acquisition/Ownership Advantages: Acquisition can profit instant market access. Provides opportunities for technology transfer to parent. Disadvantages: Problems may arise from efforts to integrate acquisitions into parent company. Requires greatest commitment of capital and managerial effort. Investment and ownership may evoke suspicion about foreign company exploitation. American companies in particular may be targets of accusations about “cultural imperialism.” Political risk is higher compared with other entry modes. 13.What are the differences among companies at international, multinational, global, and transnational stages of development? Find examples of companies that fit the characteristics of each of these types. The key differences can be described in terms of the following dimensions: organizational model; view of world, orientation, configuration of key assets, role of country units, and development and diffusion of knowledge. The organization model for an international company is that of a coordinated federation in which the center/headquarters is viewed as the source of expertise and competencies. The international company views the world as extension markets in which products developed for the home country are sold without adaptation. This approach reflects an ethnocentric orientation. Key core assets are centralized in the home country, while other assets are dispersed in country markets. The role of country units is to adapt and leverage competencies when possible. Knowledge is created at the center and transferred to country units. A multinational company is based on an organization model of a decentralized federation; Each national market is viewed as unique; This approach reflects a polycentric orientation in which key assets are decentralized and self-sufficient. The role of country units is to exploit local opportunities; indeed, one of the strengths of the multinational is its responsiveness. However, because knowledge tends to be retained by the autonomous operating units, leverage opportunities are limited. The organizational model for a global company is a centralized hub. Global companies view the world in terms of either global markets or global resources. Key assets are located in the home country except those pertaining to marketing or sourcing. Knowledge about marketing or sourcing is developed jointly by headquarters and country units and is shared. A transnational company is an integrated network that views the world in terms of both markets and resources. This geocentric view is operationalized by dispersing specialized key assets around the world but keeping them interdependent. Country units are expected to make contributions to the company worldwide; company knowledge about markets and resources is developed jointly and shared. The following are some companies that illustrate the different stages: Stage 2: FedEx; Volvo Stage 3: Citicorp (moving to stage 4); Cap Gemini (moving to stage 4) Stage 4: Harley-Davidson; BMW; Mercedes-Benz; Coca-Cola; Swatch Stage 5: Toyota; Honda; Nestle 14.Which strategic options for market entry or expansion would a small company be likely to pursue? A large company? Generally, a small company with limited assets and personnel would likely select exporting or licensing. A large company with available resources can select any option from exporting to company-owned subsidiaries. Because of limited resources, a small company may sell their existing products in a foreign country through the use of an external export organization. It basically “farms” the problem out to an organization with experience in exporting. Another alternative is licensing, a contractual arrangement whereby one company (the small company in this example) makes an asset available to company in another country in exchange for royalties, license fees or some other form of compensation. A large company with resources has several options. They may establish and monitor an in-house export department with have direct representation in the new country; they may enter a joint venture agreement or they may establish a subsidiary. Each of these alternatives is progressively more expensive and riskier. 15.What are the major attributes that distinguish GSPs from traditional joint ventures? According to Perlmutter and Heenan, in a true GSP: Two or more companies develop long-term strategies for achieving world leadership; The relationship is reciprocal; Vision and efforts are truly global; Lateral transfer of resources is essential; Participants continue to compete as distinct entities in markets not included in the agreement. 16.What six basic factors affect the success of GSPs? The factors discussed in the chapter include the f