语言学课1-6章内容概要VIP

Chapter 1Ferdinand de SaussureFerdinand de Saussure (26 November 1857 22 February 1913) was a Swiss linguist and semiotician whose ideas laid a foundation for many significant developments both in linguistics and semiology in the 20th century.He is widely considered one of the fathers of 20th-century linguistics and one of two major fathers (together with Charles Sanders Peirce) of semiotics/semiology.Saussures theoretical reconstructions of the PIE vocalic system, and particularly his theory of laryngeals otherwise unattested at the time, bore fruit and found confirmation after the decipherment of Hittite in the work of later generations of linguists like Emile Benveniste and Walter Couvreur, who both drew direct inspiration from their reading of the 1878 Mmoire. Saussure also had a major impact on the development of linguistic theory in the first half of the 20th century. His two currents of thought emerged independently of each other, one in Europe, the other in America. The results of each incorporated the basic notions of Saussures thought in forming the central tenets of structural linguistics. His status in contemporary theoretical linguistics is much diminished, with many key positions now dated or subject to challenge.Saussure posited that linguistic form is arbitrary, and therefore that all languages function in a similar fashion. According to Saussure, a language is arbitrary because it is systematic, in that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Saussure argues, languages have a relational conception of their elements: words and their meanings are defined by comparing and contrasting their meanings to one another. Chapter 2 Phonology & PhoneticsPhoneticsDefinitionBranchesArticulatory phoneticsAuditory phoneticsAcoustic phoneticsOrgans of speechPharyngeal cavityOral cavityNasal cavityOrthographic representation of speech soundsIPABroad transcriptionNarrow transcriptionClassification of English consonantsIn terms of manner of articulation: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals, glidesIn terms of place of articulation: bilabial, labiodentals, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottalClassification of English vowelsThe highest position of the tongue: front, central, backThe openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, openThe roundness of the mouth: all the front, the central vowels are unrounded, all the backThe length of the sound: long vowels, short vowels, monophthongs, diphthongsPhonologyDefinition and the difference between phonetics and phonologyPhone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pairKnow how to distinguishSome rules in phonologySequential rulesAssimilation rulesDeletion rulesSuprasegmental featuresStressTone (English is not a tone language)Intonation: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone2.1 The phonic medium of languageu Linguistics are concerned with phonic medium of language, within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 Phoneticsu Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three branches: articulatory phonetics(longest history), auditory phonetics and acoustic phonetics.u The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the pharyngeal cavity(throat), the oral cavity(mouth) and the nasal cavity(nose).u There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds: broad transcription and narrow transcription.u Classification of English speech sounds:An initial classification will divide the speech sounds in English into two broad categories: vowels and consonants.Classification of English consonantsIn terms of manner of articulationIn terms of place of articulationstops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals, glides,bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.Individual vowels (monophthongs)diphthongsClassification of English vowelsThe position of the tongue in the mouthThe openness of the mouthFront vowels, central vowels, back vowelsClose vowels, semi-close vowelsThe shape of the lipsThe length of the vowelssemi-open vowels, open vowelsUnrounded vowels, rounded vowelsLong vowels(tense), short vowels(lax)2.3 Phonologyu Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the speech sounds, but differ in their approach and focus.u The definition of the phone, phoneme, allophone, phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair.u Rules in phonology: sequential rules, assimilation rule and deletion rule.u Suprasegmental features: stress(word stress and sentence stress), tone, intonation(the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone)课后作业Part Dby English11wu徐宇颖1.What is voicing and how is it caused?Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.2.How are the English consonants classified? English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.3.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Chapter 33.1 what is morphology?Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 3.2 Open class and closed class (开放词类和封闭词类)Open class words:content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs.Closed class words:grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns. New words can be added to open class words regularly with the development of human civilization.However, the number of closed class words is small and stable since few new words are added.3.3Morphemes-the minimal units of meaning（词素，最小的意义单位）Word is the smallest free from found in language.Word can be further divided into smaller meaningful units-morphemes.So,morpheme is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes.Free morpheme & bound morphemeFree morpheme is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.Bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”Allomorph Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as “dog, bark, cat”,etc. In other instances, there may be some variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme.3.4 Analyzing word structuresGenerally speaking, a complex word often consists of a root and one or more affixes.Root: constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning.Affix: is always a bound morpheme, and does not belong to a lexical category.3.5 Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme 派生词素和屈折词素 Derivational morphemes- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words.Many prefixes and suffixes belong to derivational morphemesInflectional morphemes- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, person, mood, voice, case, number, aspect and degree; Word-formationDerivation派生: the most common word-formation process, by affixation Compounding复合 stringing words together; juxtaposition of two or more than two words to form a new, composite one with distinct properties of its ownConversion 转类构词a change in the grammatical function of a word without adding or removing any part of itBackformation 反向构词a reverse process of affixation. The word is not formed by adding a morpheme to a stem but by assuming a part of the stem as a suffix and removing itBorrowing外来语构词 (adopting foreign words)loan-words借词 (retaining their original phonetic or even written forms) Clipping缩略构词 a reduction process in which a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often used in informal speechBlending混合构词 join the beginning of the first word to the end of the other wordsAcronym首字构词 string together the initial letters of the words in a phrase, typically the names of technical apparatus and institutions, sometimes, the phrasal origin is lost neologism 新词invention of totally new terms, least common, often brand names课后作业：1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next: a. microfile e. telecommunication b. bedraggled f. forefather c. announcement g. psychophysics d. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + ed c. announce + ment d. pre + digest + ion e. tele + communicate + ion f. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each. Model: -or suffix: -or meaning: the person or thing performing the action stem type: added to verbs examples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -able meaning: something can be done or is possible stem type: added to verbs examples: acceptable, “can be accepted” respectable, “can be respected” (2) suffix: -ly meaning: functional stem type: added to adjectives examples: freely. “adverbial form of free ” quickly, “adverbial form of quick ”.4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning. Sue moves in high-society circles in London. A traffic warden asked John to move his car. The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd. The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressiveChapter 41. SyntaxMajor lexical categories2. CategoriesWord-level categoriesMinor lexical categoriesNoun phrase (NP)Categories Verb phrase (VP)Phrase categoriesAdjective phrase (AP)Prepositional phrase (PP)3. Phrase elementsSpecifiersComplementsModifiers4. Phrase structure ruleXP rule XP (specifier) X (complement)RulesCoordination rule X X*Con XXP rule (revised) X (specifier) X (complement*)The expanded XP rule XP (spec) (mod) X (complement*)(mod)5. SentencesThe S Rule:S NP VP6. TransformationsAuxiliary movementDo insertionDeep structure and surface structureWh MovementMove and constraints on transformations语言学家：Avram Noam ChomskyNoam Chomsky (born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, logician, political commentator and activist. He is sometimes described as the “father of modern linguistics”. The basis to Chomskys linguistic theory is that the principles underlying the structure of language are biologically determined in the human mind and hence genetically transmitted.He therefore argues that all humans share the same underlying linguistic structure, irrespective of socio-cultural difference.Chomskyan linguistics, beginning with hisSyntactic Structures, a distillation of hisLogical Structure of Linguistic Theory(1955, 75), challengesstructural linguisticsand introducestransformational grammar.This approach takes utterances (sequences of words) to have a syntax characterized by a formal grammar; in particular, acontext-free grammarextended with transformational rules.(基于维基百科)4.1 what is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. 4.2 categories4.2.1 word-level categoriesSyntactic category is that words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, which can generally substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality.Non traditional category including determiner(限定词), degree words (程度词) and qualifier(修饰词).Word level categories including major lexical categories and minor lexical categories. Examples of major lexical categoriesNoun: book, boy, loveVerb: run, read, playAdjective: happy, tall, clearPreposition: about, over, onExamples of minor lexical categoriesDeterminer(限定词): the, a, this, thoseDegree words(程度词): quite, very, more, soQualifier(修饰词): often, always, seldom Auxiliary(助词): must, should, can, mightConjunction(连词): and, but, or4.2.2 Phrase categories and their structuresSyntactic units that built around a certain word category are called phrase.Phrasal categories are noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP),adjective phrase(AP) and prepositional phrase(PP).Phrase that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following element: head, specifier and complement.4.3 phrase structure rule4.3.1 XP rulePhrase structure rule is the special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements.The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP and PP can be written as follow:NP(Det) N (PP)VP(Qual) V (NP)AP(Deg) A (PP)PP(Deg) P (NP)The XP rule: XP (specifier) X (complement) Head4.3.2 Coordination ruleCoordinate structures are that some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or.Coordination rule: X X* Con X4.4 Phrase elements 4.4.1 SpecifiersSpecifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles, it occur at the left boundary of their respective phrases.Examples of phrases consisting of a head and a specifierSpecifiersHeadsExamplesDeterminerNthe tree, this bookQualifierValways fail, never surender Degree wordAless interesting, quite goodPalmost in, quite above4.4.2 ComplementsThe XP Rule (revised)XP(specifier) X (Complement*)E.g. Miss Hebert believes that she will win.The whole underlined part in the above sentence is called a complement phrase.4.4.3 ModifiersModifiers is a kind of element which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads.Modifier position in EnglishModifierPositionExampleAPPrecedes the headA very careful girlPPFollows the headOpen with careAdvPPrecedes or follow the headRead carefully Carefully readThe Expanded XP rules:XP (Spec)(Mod) X (Complement*)(Mod)E.g. I love you very much.4.5 Sentences(The S Rule)The S rule:SNP VPE.g. The boy found the evidence. S NP VP Det N V NP Det N A boy found the evidence4.6 TransformationsTransformation is a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.4.6.1 Auxiliary movement E.g. The train will arrive.Will the train arrive? CP(complement phrase) C S NP VP Det N infl V the train will arrive4.6.2 Do insertionInsert interrogative do into an empty infl position CP C S NP VP N Infl VP Nonpst V Birds fly CP C S NP VP N Infl V birds do fly CP C S NP VP Infl N Infl V Do birds e fly 4.6.3 Deep structure and surface structureDeep structure is formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads subcategorization properties.Surface structure is corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence w