Language transfer.doc

Language transfer (also known as L1 interference, linguistic interference, and crossmeaning) refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from their native language to a second language. It is most commonly discussed in the context of English language learning and teaching, but it can occur in any situation when someone does not have a native-level command of a language, as when translating into a second language.Language transfer typically refers to the learners trying to apply rules and forms of the first language into the second language. The term can also include the transfer of features from one additional language to another (such as from a second to a third language), although this is less common.Contrastive analysis, discussed above, sought to predict all learner errors based on language transfer. As subsequent research in error analysis and interlanguage structure showed, this project was flawed: most errors are not due to transfer, but to faulty inferences about the rules of the target language.Transfer is an important factor in language learning at all levels. Typically learners begin by transferring sounds (phonetic transfer) and meanings (semantic transfer), as well as various rules including word order and pragmatics. As learners progress and gain more experience with the target language, the role of transfer typically diminishes.In the UG-based framework (see Linguistic universals below), language transfer specifically refers to the linguistic parameter settings defined by the language universal. Thus, language transfer is defined as the initial state of second language acquisition rather than its developmental stage.部分重要概念Transfer: A general term for a number of different kinds of influence from languages other than the L2.Negative Transfer: Learners L1 impedes L2 learning.Positive Transfer: Learners L2 impedes L1 learning.Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis: It is possible to predict when difficulty will occur in the basis of differences between the native and target languages.Ignorance Hypothesis: L1 functions primarily as a communication strategy for filling in gaps in the learners competence.An example of pragmalinguistic failure is Chinese learners use of the expression “Never mind” in replying to “Thanks a lot. Thats a great help” (He, 1988). In Chinese, we use “没关系”(Mei guan xi) or “不用谢”(Bu yong xie) in reply to “Thank you”. However, their equivalents in English, “Never mind”, “Not at all” and “You are welcome” are slightly different in use from one another, though they all may be translated as “没关系”(Mei guan xi) in Chinese. The students often failed to see the discrepancy and, due to their mother-tongue influence, used these expressions interchangeably中国人的英语常常会让老外莫名奇妙，常常会问你，“Can you speak again？whats your mean？whats your point？”这正是不同文化思维方式上的差别。英文对问题的陈述是先描述结果再描述过程，而中文则是先描述过程最后描述结果。也就是说，英文按照重要程度来描述问题，而中文按照时间顺序描述问题。例如，中国人写简历：19801983199019952002。而欧美人正好相反。再例如，中文说，“今天早晨我们去河边散步的时候你的孩子救了一个落水儿童。”而英文则说，“Your son saved a kid who falled into the river when we walk alone in the morning.”因此你不能按照中文的思维方式说英语，例如，中国人往往会这样说，“When she heards this she was happy“，但实际上欧美人是这样说的，”She was so happy when she heard this”。所以，你在使用英文的时候，就要按照英语的思维来描述问题。先说point，再由内往外，由近至远描述，而不是中文方式的由外往内由远至近的描述。因为中国人是鸟瞰的看问题，而欧美人是井底之蛙的看问题。在描述的时候，中文是从轻到重，偏正结构，而英文是从重到轻，正偏结构。例如中文说，”你的意思是。“，而英文则说：“What you mean，What your point.”。再例如,英文的歌词，“Country Road，take me home”，而中文的歌词则是，“你从雪山走来。”所以，当你用英语描述问题的时候，一定要简洁直接，不要打暗语。例如，中国的女孩子拒绝男孩子的邀请，往往会说，“现在忙，下次吧”。这一句“下次吧”的意思很有可能是说， “下辈子吧”，但是欧美人如果听到你说“下次吧”，往往会理解成你现在真的没有时间，于是第二次又来约你。再例如，在中国，老板问职员，十一放假有没有事啊？外国的职员一般都会提前把自己的休假计划好的，于是会向老板说他要去哪里哪里玩。但如果是中国的职员，就会问老板，“需要我加班吗？” 很多人的困扰是中文想说的意思无法表达成同步的英文，在你汉英转换的时候，可以考虑把你的把汉语的水平降到英语的水平再翻译，这样就降低了你的翻译难度。比如中文说，“他缺了一条腿”，英文的“缺”不太好精确的翻译，你可以降低后用英文说，“他只有一条腿”。再例如，”我们不能近亲结婚“，可以降低变成，”我和我丈夫不能是接近的亲属“。但是，也不要走入过度简洁而不顾文化背景的误区。例如，过去我们在国际上宣传我们的社会主义建设时把“五讲四美三热爱”翻译成“Five talks,Four beauties,Three loves，结果老外一看，纷纷到中国旅游，因为他们把这句话按照英语的思维方式理解成了”五次谈话，可以找到4个美女，其中3个可以成为情人。“英语实际上是一种细节化的表达语言，语言信息，是非常好学的一种语言，I say what I mean and I mean what I say。但是中文则是语言信息,例如，”长河落日圆“，”枯藤老树昏鸦“等等，这都是在英汉转换的时候需要注意的.也就是为什么要求你把你的汉语水平降低到英语的水平,然后再进行汉英转换的问题。中西思维的差异还表现在价值观上。中国价值体现在相同上，所以汉语是批评的教育，追求共同性。而欧美的价值体现在不同上，所以英语是夸奖的教育，是一种求异文化，追求独特性。所以中国人眼里的丑女到了欧美很容易就找到男友，但是中国帅哥才子到了欧美却很不容易找到欧美的女友，因为欧美女孩子并不是看重男孩子是否帅，学习是否刻苦，而是看重健壮的身体。所以，在欧美，体育项目有特长的男孩才是她们崇拜的偶像，才是她们心中的英雄。而中国才子能考到奖学金去欧美留学的，体育上往往都很弱，更不用说那些橄榄球，冰球之类的冲撞项目了。正因为这种追求独特性的文化，所以英文的思维是out standing。当你用英文定义所有的概念的时候也需要注意这一点。例如，给出两个事物让你解释，你就要按照这样的思维方式来构架你描述的思路：UFO1.e from4.where to go5.whoape1.a kind of animal2.just like human3.live in mountain 只有这样在形成了the way of thinking的习惯以后，你才会慢慢的建立你对英文的自信。然后在你阅读和写作的时候，就会轻松很多。对于阅读，不推荐读国内的报刊或缩写本的英文读物，读这些东西的结果就是将来你拿过来欧美9岁儿童阅读的哈里。波特，很有可能看不懂。因为那才是纯正英语的句式和思维方式。首先，泛读先从简单的读物读起，例如英文小说：小妇人，小孤女，海蒂，小公主等等。不要认为里面的生词少就不屑于阅读，这样通俗易懂的简单英语读物正是提高你英语阅读速度的工具。然后一步一步的加大阅读的难度，并通过阅读掌握新的单词。单词的掌握不必可以，如果这个单词重要，则会在这个文章中反复的出现。这样的话你很容易就会理解并记住这个单词。如果你觉得自己的语法不好，可以看一下张道真或者薄冰的语法书，其实语法的难点就在于非谓语动词和复合句，记住规则并背下例句基本上就可以解决。不要把过多的精力投入到语法的研究中去，没有必要。要记住语法是从语言里面总结出来的，是语言的孙子，而不是语言的祖父。在这个基础上，再训练提高自己的阅读速度，养成快速阅读的习惯。怎样才会快速阅读？首先要搞清楚一个原理，就是阅读的单位。我们经常会听到老外抱怨中国的报刊字体太小，不好辨认。其实我们中国人并没有觉得小。为什么呢？因为我们辨认一个汉字，从大体轮廓上就能知道是什么字，例如“赢”。但是老外来看这个字，就会仔细的辨认 “亡口月贝凡”，才会反应出这个字是“赢”。同样的道理，我们看英文的网站会觉得他们的字体太小，实际上我们是在辨认每个单词的每个字母，然后再反应出单词的中文意思，再产生理解。但老外是看单词的外形就知道是什么意思，并没有仔细的查对每一个字母。这就是提高英文阅读速度的诀窍。写作就是考书面英语，英文的句子是树状结构的句子，中文则是竹竿结构的句子。在英文写作的时候要注意单词的前后搭配，例如：bring people together。同时也要摆脱中文的思维方式。也就是我们刚才提到的美语思维。并且注意不同词汇与句法的使用才能体现出你写作的水平。例如，药性容你的女朋友很漂亮，一般人会说，“Nothing can be compare with her beauty!”，但是这样的说法缺少修饰，我们可以润色一下，“Nothing can be compare with her dreamy eyes,rosy cheaks,sexy lips and supple knees！”，再晋一级，你可以说，“No one can avoid being influened by .”与阅读和写作同步进行的，就是听力和口语的学习。而口语往往是衡量一个人英语水平的标准。The moment you speak,You are placed. 而我们以前往往学到的是聋哑英语，用一句歌词来说就是，”洋装虽然穿在身，我心依然是中国心“。当你的思维方式解决好了以后，就可以开始听力和口语了，这样会使你的进步更迅速。English Chinese people are often baffled foreigner will often ask, Can you speak again? What s your mean? whats your point？”这正是不同文化思维方式上的差别。 what s your point? This is a different way of thinking and cultural differences. 英文对问题的陈述是先描述结果再描述过程，而中文则是先描述过程最后描述结果。 English statement of the problem is to describe the results of a further description of the process, and the Chinese is the first description of the process described in the final results. 也就是说，英文按照重要程度来描述问题，而中文按照时间顺序描述问题。 In other words, in accordance with the importance of English to describe the problem, and Chinese in accordance with the chronological description of the problem. 例如，中国人写简历：19801983199019952002。 For example, the Chinese people to write notes :1980-1983-1990-1995-2002. 而欧美人正好相反。 Europe and North America were just the opposite. 再例如，中文说，“今天早晨我们去河边散步的时候你的孩子救了一个落水儿童。”而英文则说，“Your son saved a kid who falled into the river when we walk alone in the morning.”因此你不能按照中文的思维方式说英语，例如，中国人往往会这样说，“When she heards this she was happy“，但实际上欧美人是这样说的，”She was so happy when she heard this”。 For another example, the Chinese said, we go to the river this morning, when walking your child to save a child fell into the water. English said, Your son saved a kid who falled into the river when we walk alone in the morning. So you can not the Chinese way of thinking in accordance with the English, for example, Chinese people often say, When she heards this she was happy , but in fact this is the case in Europe and America who say, She was so happy when she heard this . 所以，你在使用英文的时候，就要按照英语的思维来描述问题。 Therefore, the use of your time in English, it is necessary in accordance with the English way of thinking to describe the problem. 先说point，再由内往外，由近至远描述，而不是中文方式的由外往内由远至近的描述。 Said first point, then from the inside out, away from the past to describe, rather than from outside the Chinese approach to the past from as far away as the description. 因为中国人是鸟瞰的看问题，而欧美人是井底之蛙的看问题。 Because it is a birds eye view of the Chinese people look at the issue, while Europe and the United States is a look at the issue of井底之蛙. 在描述的时候，中文是从轻到重，偏正结构，而英文是从重到轻，正偏结构。 In describing the time, Chinese is the light to heavy structural modification, and English is the heavy to light, the structure is biased. 例如中文说，”你的意思是。“，而英文则说：“What you mean，What your point.”。 For example, the Chinese said, Do you mean to say 。, English: What you mean, What your point .。 再例如,英文的歌词，“Country Road，take me home”，而中文的歌词则是，“你从雪山走来。”所以，当你用英语描述问题的时候，一定要简洁直接，不要打暗语。 For another example, the English lyrics, Country Road, take me home, while Chinese lyrics is, You come from the snow-capped mountains 。 So, when you use English to describe issues must be concise direct, not to fight a code word. 例如，中国的女孩子拒绝男孩子的邀请，往往会说，“现在忙，下次吧”。 China, for example, the girl refused the invitation of the boys, often said, is now busy, the next bar. 这一句“下次吧”的意思很有可能是说， “下辈子吧”，但是欧美人如果听到你说“下次吧”，往往会理解成你现在真的没有时间，于是第二次又来约你。 This is a next time you most likely means that now my next life, but Europe and the United States if they hear you say next time you, often interpreted as you really do not have the time now, so the second time and to about you. 再例如，在中国，老板问职员，十一放假有没有事啊？ For another example, in China, the boss asked the staff of 11 have done a holiday ah? 外国的职员一般都会提前把自己的休假计划好的，于是会向老板说他要去哪里哪里玩。 The general staff of foreign countries will leave ahead of time to plan their own good, so that he will go where the boss where to play. 但如果是中国的职员，就会问老板，“需要我加班吗？” However, if Chinas staff will ask the boss, you need me to work overtime? 很多人的困扰是中文想说的意思无法表达成同步的英文，在你汉英转换的时候，可以考虑把你的把汉语的水平降到英语的水平再翻译 ，这样就降低了你的翻译难度。 Many people would like to say the worry is that the Chinese can not be expressed as the mean synchronization in English, Chinese-English translation of your time, you can consider the level of the Chinese down to the level of English and then translated, so that you reduce the difficulty of the translation . 比如中文说，“他缺了一条腿”，英文的“缺”不太好精确的翻译，你可以降低后用英文说，“他只有一条腿”。 For example, the Chinese said, He is missing a leg, the lack of precision is not a good translation, you can reduce the use of English after that, he has only one leg. 再例如，”我们不能近亲结婚“，可以降低变成，”我和我丈夫不能是接近的亲属“。 For another example, We can not consanguineous marriage, can be lowered into, My husband and I can not be closer to relatives. 但是，也不要走入过度简洁而不顾文化背景的误区。 However, not into the over-simplicity and of errors regardless of cultural background. 例如，过去我们在国际上宣传我们的社会主义建设时把“五讲四美三热爱”翻译成“Five talks,Four beauties,Three loves，结果老外一看，纷纷到中国旅游，因为他们把这句话按照英语的思维方式理解成了”五次谈话，可以找到4个美女，其中3个可以成为情人。“ For example, the past, we in the international promotion of our socialist construction, when the three五讲四美love translated into Five talks, Four beauties, Three loves, the results of a foreigner, the one after another to visit China because they are in accordance with this sentence understand the English way of thinking has become the fifth conversation, you can find four beautiful women, of which three can be a lover. 英语实际上是一种细节化的表达语言，语言信息，是非常好学的一种语言，I say what I mean and I mean what I say。 English is actually a detail of the expression of language, language = information, is very eager to learn a language, I say what I mean and I mean what I say. 但是中文则是语言信息,例如，”长河落日圆“，”枯藤老树昏鸦“等等，这都是在英汉转换的时候需要注意的.也就是为什么要求你把你的汉语水平降低到英语的水平,然后再进行汉英转换的问题。 However, Chinese is the language information, such as, the long river down the yen, faint枯藤old crow, and so on, this is the time in English-Chinese translation needs attention. Ask you is why your level of Chinese reduced to the level of English, and then convert to the issue of Chinese and English. 中西思维的差异还表现在价值观上。 Thinking the difference is also reflected in the values. 中国价值体现在相同上，所以汉语是批评的教育，追求共同性。 China on the value of the same, so is the criticism of Chinese education, the pursuit of commonality. 而欧美的价值体现在不同上，所以英语是夸奖的教育，是一种求异文化，追求独特性。 And the value of Europe and the United States reflected in the different on, so English is the praise of education, is a cultural difference, the pursuit of uniqueness. 所以中国人眼里的丑女到了欧美很容易就找到男友，但是中国帅哥才子到了欧美却很不容易找到欧美的女友，因为欧美女孩子并不是看重男孩子是否帅，学习是否刻苦，而是看重健壮的身体。 So the ugly eyes of the Chinese people to Europe and the United States its easy to find a boyfriend, but the guy in China Talent to Europe and the United States but in Europe and America is not easy to find a girlfriend, because girls are not valued in Europe and America are Shuai boys to learn whether the hard, but physically robust value. 所以，在欧美，体育项目有特长的男孩才是她们崇拜的偶像，才是她们心中的英雄。 Therefore, in Europe and the United States, sports are the boys is the specialty of their idol is a hero in their hearts. 而中国才子能考到奖学金去欧美留学的，体育上往往都很弱，更不用说那些橄榄球，冰球之类的冲撞项目了。 Talent in China can get a scholarship to study in Europe and America, sports are often weak, let alone those rugby, ice hockey, such as the impact the project. 正因为这种追求独特性的文化，所以英文的思维是out standing。 It is with this pursuit of a unique culture, and are therefore the thinking is out standing. 当你用英文定义所有的概念的时候也需要注意这一点。 When you use the English definition of the concept of all time also need to pay attention to this point. 例如，给出两个事物让你解释，你就要按照这样的思维方式来构架你描述的思路： For example, given two things you explained, you should be in accordance with this way of thinking to describe the framework of your ideas: UFO UFO 1.object 1.object 2.flyying 2.flyying 3.come from 3.come from 4.where to go 4.where to go 5.who 5.who ape ape 1.a kind of animal 1.a kind of animal 2.just like human 2.just like human 3.live in mountain 3.live in mountain 只有这样在形成了the way of thinking的习惯以后，你才会慢慢的建立你对英文的自信。 Only in this way in the form of the way of thinking of the habit, you will slowly build your confidence in English. 然后在你阅读和写作的时候，就会轻松很多。 And then in your time of reading and writing will be a lot easier. 对于阅读，不推荐读国内的报刊或缩写本的英文读物，读这些东西的结果就是将来你拿过来欧美9岁儿童阅读的哈里。 For reading, do not recommend reading the newspapers or the initials of domestic English reading this, reading the results of these things is that you get from Europe and the United States of 9-year-old children reading Harry. 波特，很有可能看不懂。 Porter, is likely to fail to understand. 因为那才是纯正英语的句式和思维方式。 Because it is pure English sentence and ways of thinking. 首先，泛读先从简单的读物读起，例如英文小说：小妇人，小孤女，海蒂，小公主等等。 First of all, start reading from a simple reading of books, such as the English novel: Little Women, a small orphan girls, Heidi, and so small princess. 不要认为里面的生词少就不屑于阅读，这样通俗易懂的简单英语读物正是提高你英语阅读速度的工具。 Do not think that fewer words on the inside did not read, so that a simple user-friendly reading materials in English is to improve your English reading speed of the tool. 然后一步一步的加大阅读的难度，并通过阅读掌握新的单词。 Increased step by step and then the difficulty of reading and reading to acquire new words. 单词的掌握不必可以，如果这个单词重要，则会在这个文章中反复的出现。 Do not have to be the master of words, if the word important, will be repeated in this article, the emergence of. 这样的话你很容易就会理解并记住这个单词。 So you can easily understand and remember the words. 如果你觉得自己的语法不好，可以看一下张道真或者薄冰的语法书，其实语法的难点就在于非谓语动词和复合句，记住规则并背下例句基本上就可以解决。 If you feel bad grammar, you can look at Zhang Daozhen grammar book or thin ice, in fact, difficult syntax is non-predicate verbs and complex sentences, remember back under the rules and examples can be solved fundamentally. 不要把过多的精力投入到语法的研究中去，没有必要。 Do not put too much energy into the study of grammar, and there is no need to. 要记住语法是从语言里面总结出来的，是语言的孙子，而不是语言的祖父。 To remember the syntax is summed up from the language which is the grandson of the language, rather than the language of the grandfather. 在这个基础上，再训练提高自己的阅读速度，养成快速阅读的习惯。 On this basis, re-training to improve their reading speed, develop the habit of speed reading. 怎样才会快速阅读？ How fast can read? 首先要搞清楚一个原理，就是阅读的单位。 First of all, a principle to be clarified is that the units of reading. 我们经常会听到老外抱怨中国的报刊字体太小，不好辨认。 We often hear foreigners complain that Chinas newspapers and fonts are too small, not to identify. 其实我们中国人并没有觉得小。 In fact, we Chinese people do not think small. 为什么呢？ Why? 因为我们辨认一个汉字，从大体轮廓上就能知道是什么字，例如“赢”。 Because we identify a character, from the general outline of what we can know the word, such as win. 但是老外来看这个字，就会仔细的辨认“亡口月贝凡”，才会反应出这个字是“赢”。 But look at the word a foreigner will be careful to identify the death of Tony on Where I, will reflect the word is win. 同样的道理，我们看英文的网站会觉得他们的字体太小，实际上我们是在辨认每个单词的每个字母，然后再反应出单词的中文意思，再产生理解。 The same token, we see that the English version of the site will find their fonts are too small, in fact, we are to identify each letter of each word, and then respond to the Chinese meaning of the word, and then have to understand. 但老外是看单词的外形就知道是什么意思，并没有仔细的查对每一个字母。 However, a foreigner is to look at the shape of words What does it mean to know, did not carefully check every letter. 这就是提高英文阅读速度的诀窍。 This is to improve English reading speed of the know-how. 写作就是考书面英语，英文的句