Chapter 11 SLA.doc

Chapter 11 SLAIntroductionDefinition: 1. Second Language Acquisition (SLA) refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language. 2. L2 acquisition can be defined as the way in which people learn a language other than their mother tongue, inside or outside of a classroom. The goals of SLA are to describe how L2 acquisition proceeds and to explain this process and why some learners seem to be better at it than others. (Rod Ellis 1985)Connections between FLA and SLAFirst language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and understanding new facts about second language learning.Second language learners generally fail to attain native-like competence. Interlanguage.Points of comparison for successive foreign language learning paradigms NL: TL comparisons (Contrastive analysis) IL: TL comparisons (Error analysis) NL: IL comparisons (Transfer analysis)The role of native language in SLALanguage transfer: The differences between native and target languages would either lead to positive transfer or negative transfer, also known as interference.迁移是指目标语和其他任何已经习得的（或者没有完全习得的）语言之间的共性和差异所造成的影响。A distinction was made between positive transfer and negative transfer. While the former would facilitate target language learning, the later would interfere. Therefore in second / foreign language learning and teaching the basis of language instruction was differences between the native language and target language.Mentalist: few errors were caused by language transfer.Interlanguage: Learns put their first language back to the whole picture and studied its role from a cognitive perspective. In this sense, native language functions as a kind of “input from inside,” therefore transfer is not transfer, but a kind of mental process.There are three interacting factors in determining language transfer in second language learning:1. a learners psychology, how a learner organize his or her native language2. perception of native-target language distance3. actual knowledge of the target languageContrastive AnalysisStarting with describing comparable features of the native language and target language, contrastive analysis compares the forms and meanings across the two languages to spot the mismatches of differences so that people could predict learners difficulty.However, the contrastive analysis was soon found problematic, for many of the predictions of the target language learning difficulty formulated on the basis of contrastive analysis turned out to be either uninformative: teachers had known about these errors already or inaccurate.20世纪50年代， 美国应用语言学家 Fries 和 Lado 等人就开始系统地研究错误并由此产生了有关错误的早期理论对比分析。 Lado在Linguistic Across Cultures 一书中提出，“人们倾向于把他们本民族的语言和文化的形式、意义以及它们的分布迁移到外民族的语言和文化中去。” 他的这一假设成为后来对比分析的基本思想并影响了全世界的外语教学。对比分析的基本任务是通过两种或多种语言的共时比较发现它们在结构和功能上的异同。Error AnalysisError analysis involves first independently or objectively, describing the learners interlanguage, then a comparison of the two is followed to locate mismatches. Different from contrastive analysis, error analysis gave less consideration to learners native language. 错误分析是对学习者在第二语言习得过程中所产生的错误进行系统的分析，研究其来源，揭示学习者的中介语体系，从而了解第二语言习得的过程与规律。错误一般指外语学习者用外语学话、作文时出现偏离目标语正确表达法的现象。 错误大体可以分为两类，一类是错误 （error），是不符合语法规则和交际规范的话语，反映出的问题是学生的语言知识和能力不足。 如：*Does Tom can dance? 另一类是失误（mistake）， 由说话和写作时精神不集中、疲劳、紧张、粗心、厌烦、激动或其他行为而导致的失误，即通常所说的笔误和口误。这种失误不是系统的，并不能反映说话者的语言能力，操本族语的人也常出现这样的错误。这种错误的特点是，一旦出项，说话者有能力自我改正。While errors defined as unintentionally deviant from the target language and not self-corrigible by the learner suggest failure in competence, mistakes as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and self-corrigible suggest failure in performance. e.g. I majored in Chinese literature. *I majored in Chinese lavatory.错误分析的作用：1 通过错误分析，教师可以了解学习者对目标语的掌握情况及其所达到的阶段。2 通过错误分析，研究者可以了解学习者是如何习得目标语的，有助于了解学习者在学习过程中所采取的学习策略和步骤。3 通过错误分析，研究者会发现学习者的错误时是不可避免地，出错可以看做学习的手段，用于检验关于正在学习的语言规则的假设。Two main sorts of errors were diagnosed: interlingual errors and intralingual errors. The interlingual errors mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal etc. 语间干扰指学生已掌握的语言体系（母语）对目前正在进行的语言（外语）学习的影响。e.g. His body is very healthy. Now is five oclock.The intralingual errors mainly result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language.语内干扰是指学习者根据已获得的、有限的、不完整的外语知识和经验，对语言作出的不正确的假设，从而类推出偏离规则的结构。不同母语背景的学生在学习同一语言时会犯同样的和相似的错误，这一现象正是语内干扰的表现。学生在学习外语时往往以归纳为主，过分扩大外语某一规则的使用范围，以致创造出一些错误的语言结构，因此，过度概括是语内干扰的根源。e.g. * This novel is worth being reading. This novel is worth reading. * A car accident was taken place in the street in the morning. A car accident took place in the street in the morning.There are learning strategies-based errors, communication strategies-based errors, induced errors and some compound and ambiguous errors among which overgeneralization or cross-association have been well exploited.Other sources of errors:3 文化干扰 Cultural interference e.g. * You have grown fat these days.4 交际策略 Communicative Strategies e.g. * I lost my road. * The classroom is very LUAN. - Thank you. - Its my duty to do so.5 认知和性格特点 Cognition and personality6 教学引起的错误Interlanguage (learner language)Proposed by S. Pit Corder and Larry Selinker, the concept of interlanguage was established as learners independent system of the second language which is neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language. The term “interlanguage” was coined by the American linguist Larry Selinker, in recognition of the fact that L2 learner construct a linguistic system that draws, in part , on the learners L1 but is also different from it and also from the target language. A learners interlanguage is, therefore, a unique linguistic system.在学习第二语言时，学习者为自己建立了一个在某种方式上既不同于他们的第一语言又不同于他们的第二语言的一个语言系统，Selinker 称其为过渡语，用以强调语言学习者在结构上处于其母语和目的语之间的中间状态。 这个语言系统有不同的名称：个人特异方言；渐进系统；过渡能力等。这些术语反映了过渡语的不同侧面和特征。过渡语的特征：1 系统性 （systematicity） 过渡语从一开始就是系统的，像任何自然语言一样具有内部的固有结构，因此可以进行系统的语言分析。2 可渗透性 （permeability） 过渡语可以受到学习者母语和目的语的规则和形式的渗透，这是造成过渡语区别于母语和目的语的根本原因。3 “僵化” 现象 （fossilization） “僵化”现象又叫过渡语的顽固性，是过渡语稳定的表现。它一方面指过渡语在总体上总也达不到与母语完全一样的水平，另一方面指学习者在语言的某些具体形式，如语音和语法项目上，学到一定程度就进入平台期，停滞不前了。一旦过渡语的渗透性消失，它的僵化特征就出现了。“僵化”形成的原因在心理学上可归纳为3点：学习外语的成年人大脑灵活性减退；成年人发展抽象思维，对目的语归纳不正确；语言“自我”造成的对目的语“移情作用”的阻碍。Fossilization is defined as (in second and foreign language teaching) a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speakers or writes a language. Fossilization may occur at any time and at any level. So far various causes have been listed to account for this phenomenon such as lack of acculturation, will to maintain identity, inappropriate extrinsic feedback, cognitive maturation, satisfaction of communicative needs, lack of control , quality of input, lack of input, native language influences and instructions etc. 4 反复性 过渡语在不断地向目的语接近，但这种接近不是线性的，而是螺旋形、波浪形的，是有曲折、有反复的。Structural properties of interlanguagePit Corder (1981) defines the structural properties of interlanguage as: (a) a simple morphological system, (b) a more or less fixed word order, (c) a simple personal pronoun system, (d) a small number of grammatical function words, (e) little or no use of the copula, and (f) the absence of an article system. SLA Models and Input HypothesisWhat is essential in understanding SLA is to understand how various research areas and theories relate to one another.Behaviorism model: the role of imitation and positive reinforcement, a “nurture” positionMentalists or Innativists: a “nature” position; LAD Therefore it can be seen that currently the models and theories of SLA are mainly divided on the point: to what extent SLA is a function of innateness.An innateness position: a learners structural knowledge allows him or her to construct the grammar of the target language on the basis of limited data.The opposite: language acquisition and social interaction are mutually dependent and that language acquisition cannot be understood if detached from the context it occurs.Krashen assumed that there were two independent means or routes of second language learning:Acquisition: it is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners can hardly be aware of their learning but they are using the language to communicate. People refer it to implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.Learning: as another route is a conscious learning of the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules. i + comprehensible input 可理解性输入 By providing comprehensible input which is bit higher than the learners current level, the learners LAD will be activated and contribute to acquisition. In Krashens view the input hypothesis is central to all acquisition and has implications for the classroom. i+l: comprehensible input i: earners current state of knowledgei+1: the next stageIndividual differencesLanguage aptitudeLanguage aptitude refers to a natural ability for learning a second language. It is believed to be related to a learners general intelligence.Early work by John Carroll led to the identification of a number of components of language aptitude:1 Phonemic coding ability, i.e. the ability to identify the sounds of a foreign language so that they can be remembered later. This ability is also seen as related to the ability to handle sound-symbol relationships. (e.g. to identify the sound which “th” stands for).2 Grammatical sensitivity, i.e. the ability to recognize the grammatical functions of words in sentences (e.g. the subject and object of a sentence).3 Inductive language learning ability, i.e. the ability to identify patterns of correspondence and relations between form and meaning (e.g. to recognize that in English “to” can denote direction and “at” location).4 Rote learning ability, i.e. the ability to form and remember associations between stimuli. This is believed to be important in vocabulary learning.Motivation Motivation involves the attitudes and affective states that influence the degree of effort that learners make to learn an L2. It has a strong impact on his efforts in learning a second language.Four types of motivation have been identified:1 Instrumental motivation 工具性动机2 Integrative motivation 综合性动机3 Resultative motivation 结果性动机4 Intrinsic motivation 内在动机All types of motivation promote learning and they are complementary to each other.Learning strategiesLanguage strategies are the particular approaches or techniques that learners employ to try to learn an L2. They can be behavioural (e.g. repeating new words) or they can be mental (e.g. using the linguistic or situational context to infer the meaning of a new word). They are typically goal-oriented and problem-solving. Motivation plays an important role in learners use of learning strategies.Among various divisions of learning strategies, those by Chamot and Oxford are widely accepted:1 Cognitive strategies 认知策略2 Metacognitive strategies 元认知策略3 Affect / social strategies 影响/社会策略A further division by Cohen:1 language learning strategies2 language using strategiesAge of Acquisition Critical Period Hypothesis In terms of learning achievement and grammaticality the younger learners outperform the adults. Meanwhile the opportunity for learning, motivation to learn, individual differences in aptitude for learning are also important determining factors in both the rate of learning and ultimate achievement in second language learning.PersonalityA number of personality characteristics have been proposed as likely to affect second language learning. The personality traits such as extroversion, talkative, self-esteem, self-confidence can be found in successful second language learners. Certain personality traits appear helpful in completing certain tasks in learning a second language. Therefore, the personality study may be better studied in combination with other factors such as task type, learning context, teacher or materials etc, that contribute to second language learningSLA and its pedagogical implicationsAll the research findings in SLA have direct pedagogical implicati