Chapter2SpeechSounds.doc

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds A. Phonetics B. PhonologyA. Phonetics2.1 Speech production and perception2.2 Speech organs (vocal organs) 2.3 Segments, divergences and phonetic transcription 2.4 Consonants 2.5 Vowels2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.1 Speech production & perception Speech and writing are two media used by naturallanguages as vehicles for communication. Of the 2 media of language, speech is more basic than writing. We first begin with the study of sounds, whichis called phonetics and then go on to the study of sound patterns called phonology. The study of sounds is divided into 3 areas:(1) Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学(2) Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学(3) Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学2.2 Speech organs (vocal organs) The vocal organs consist mainly of the lungs, windpipe, the throat, the nose and the mouth. Three resonating cavities(1) The pharyngeal cavity-The vocal cords (vocal folds) are either (a) apart (b) close together or (c) totally closed When the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is voiceless. Eg: p t s When they are close together, the air stream causes them to vibrate against each other and the sound produced is voiced. Eg: b d z When they are totally closed, no air can pass between them and the result is the glottal stop (?). Thus the sound is inaudible, but it has its effect on surrounding segment. In English it often occurs initially to produce a word like idiot which begins with a vowel.(2) The oral cavity-The tongue (the tip, the blade, the front, the back and the root), the soft palate (velum), the hard palate, the uvula, the alveolar ridge, the teeth and the lips. (3) The nasal cavity-The soft palate may be lowered so that the air can go through the nasal cavity, then the sound produced will have a nasal resonance called a nasal. The Vocal Tract (声道)2.3 Segments, divergences and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergences2.3.2 Phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergences SegmentIn the production of the word egg, we recognize 2 sound segments e and g for e and g, the other g is silent; lake has 3 sound segments l ei and k for l, a, and k ,the e is silent. Divergence-The English spelling doesnt represent its pronunciation. George Bernard Shaw pointed out the lack of precision in English orthography by spelling fish as ghoti, as gh is pronounced as f in enough, o as i in women and ti as in nation. The English spelling does not represent its pronunciation: There is a divergence between sound and symbols because there are more sounds than its letters can represent and each letter must represent more than one sound.a. A letter represents different sounds.lame / ei / pad/ / father / a: /【a】 tall/ : / stoppage / i / about / / many/ e /b. Different letters may represent a single sounddo bootwothroughsoup /u:/crewbluejuiceado c. Some letters are mute in certain words. mnemonic who sign gnaw ptisan wreck dole corps psalm sword debt ghost bough comb isle know whole sword knife psychologySpelling and Speech2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionIPAthe International Phonetic Alphabet 1） 1886The Danish grammarian Otto Jespersen （1860-1943）first proposed the idea of establishing a phonetic alphabet （语音字母表）. 2） 1886the International Phonetic Association in France 国际语音协会 1897the Phonetic Teachers Association 语音教师协会 3） 1888The first version of the IPA was published in August， and later it was revised and corrected many times. The principle of IPA is to use Roman alphabet letter, using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sound, and using new letters and diacritics (附加符号) only when necessary. 4） 1920sThe present system is from the British phonetician, Daniel Jones（1881-1967） 5) 1996The latest version of the IPA was revised in 1993 and corrected in 1996 Its principles : that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any lge in which it appears.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowels2.4.2 Consonants2.4.3 Manners of articulation2.4.4 Place of articulation2.4.5 The consonants of English2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsConsonantsThe air stream coming fromthe lungs is obstructed in one way or another in the production.VowelsThe air stream encounters no obstruction whatsoever in the production. Semi-vowels-Some segments are neither vowels nor consonants but midway between the two. Eg: h w j2.4.2 ConsonantsManners of articulation-The manner or the way in which obstruction is createdPlace of articulation-The place where obstruction is created2.4.3 Manners of articulation(1) Stop (plosive): 3 phases (a) The closing phase (b) The hold phase (c) The release phase oral stops: p b, t d, k g nasal stops: m n (2) Fricative: f v, G, s z, . 9 h(3) (Median) Approximant: w, r j(4) Lateral (approximant) : l (5) Trill (roll): r If only one vibration is produced (i.e. the tongue makes a single tap against the alveolar ridge), it is called a tap （flap).(6) Affricates: t. d9Please note: ts dz, tr dr now dont enjoy the proper position in English because the first 2 are used only for suffixes and foreign words only, while the latter 2 are often realized as 2 different sounds in many peoples speech.2.4.4 Place of articulation(1) Bilabial: p b, m w(2) Labiodental: f v(3) Dental: G (4) Alveolar: t d, s z, n, r l(5) Post-alveolar: . 9, t. d9(6) Retroflex: r(7) Palatal: j (8) Velar: k g, (9) Uvular: No such sounds in English(10) Pharyngeal: No such sounds in English(11) Glottal: h ?2.4.5 The consonants of English RPReceived PronunciationIt is a form of English pronunciation and the most common modelaccent in the teaching of English as a foreign language. Many peoplecalled it BBC or Oxford English. RP originates historically in thesoutheast of England and is spoken by the upper middle and upperclasses in England. It is widely used in the private sector of theeducation system and spoken by most newsreaders of BBC network. The description of English consonants(1) voiced or voiceless(2) manner of articulation(3) place of articulationEg: b voiced bilabial stop s voiceless alveolar fricative m bilabial nasal j palatal approximant h glottal fricative l alveolar lateral p? z?Consonant phones of English2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description 2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels 2.5.3 Vowel glides 2.5.4 The vowels of RP 2.5.1 The criteria of vowel descriptionThere are 4 criteria: The part of the tongue that is raised-front, central or back. front: i: i e ae a central: *8* back: u: u %8 % a: The kind of opening made at the lipsvarious degrees of lips rounding or spreading: close, close-mid, open-mid and open.(见教材） the shape of the lips: unrounded and rounded unrounded vowels: the front and central vowels, a: rounded vowels: the back vowels The length of the sound: tense: all the long vowels lax: all the short vowels2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels (by Daniel Jones in his Outline of English Phonetics)The cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages. The cardinal vowel diagram is a set of standard reference points on a combination articulatory and auditory judgments. All cardinal vowels are monophthongs and their quality does not change during their production. By convention, the 8 primary cardinal vowels are：CV1i, CV2e, CV3, CV4a, CV5 CV6 %, CV7 o, CV8 u The first 5 are unrounded while the last 3 are rounded. 2.5.3 Vowel glides Pure (monophthong)The quality of sound remains constant throughout the articulation. Vowel glidesThere is an audible change of the quality of sound throughout the articulation. (1) DiphthongsA single movement of the tongue. Three kinds of diphthongs in English A. Centering diphthongs: Those that move from an initial vowel to a central/mid position near . Eg: i, e, u B. Closing diphthongs: Those that move from an initial vowel to a close/front position near i. Eg: ei, ai, %i C. Those that move to a close/back position near u. Eg: u, au (2) TriphthongsA double movement of the tongue. They are produce by a glide from one vowel to another and then to a 3rd rapidly and continuously. Eg: ai, au, in wire and hour.2.5.4 The vowels of RP Various symbols have been used for the representation of vowels by different writers. The description of the vowels needs to meet 4 basic requirements:(1) The position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) (2) The openness of the tongue raising (close, semi-close, semi-open, open) (3) Lip-rounding (rounded vs unrounded) (4) The length of the vowels or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. long, lax vs short) Eg: i: front close tense unrounded u back close lax rounded Vowel phones of English2.6 Coarticulation & phonetic transcription2.6.1 Coarticulation 2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptions2.6.1 Coarticulation（协同发音）The simultaneous or overlapping articulations process. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, it is anticipatory coarticulation（提前协同发音）. Eg: lamb If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation（持续协同发音）. Eg: map2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptions Diacritics-A set of symbols added to the letter symbols to make minute (slight) difference between variations of the same sound than the letters alone make possible. Broad transcription-A simple set of letter-symbols only, normally used in dictionaries and textbooks. Narrow transcription-A more specific set of letter-symbols with diacritics to show more phonetic details, required and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sound. Eg: see P54 (Table 2.4)B. Phonology2.7 Phonological analysis2.8 Phonemes and allophones 2.9 Phonological process2.10 Distinctive features 2.11 Syllables 2.12 Stress 2.13 Tone 2.14 Intonation 2.7 Phonological analysis PhoneticsIt is of general nature, it studies all the possible natural speech sounds used in all human lges, and how they are produced, transmitted and received, and how they differ from each other ( i.e. what phonetic features they have) and how they can be classified. PhonologyIt studies the sound systems of lges, it is concerned with the patterning of sounds in human lges, its primary aim is to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in lges, and explain the variations that occur. It also studies the way in which speakers of a lge systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. The conclusion we reach about the phonology of one lge is very often lge specific and should not be applied to another lge. 音系学研究的是语言的语音系统。音系学涉及的是人类语言中语音的语言学模式，它的主要目的是去发现语言中语音的组成规则，并解释发生的变化。语音学研究所有可能的语音，而音系学研究的是说话人为表达意义而系统的选择语音的方法。音系学的一个普遍方法是，以分析某一具体语言为开端，确定它的音系结构，比如，它采用了哪些语音单位，他们的模式怎样？然后，比较不同语音系统的特点，这样就可以形成在特定语群中潜在的语音使用规则的假设，最后扩展到所有语言的语音规则。2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairs2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 Allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairs Minimal pair-Two different words that are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings. Eg: pin-bin, bin-tin, tie-die, choke-joke, pill-bill, bill-till, till-kill. They should meet 3 conditions:(1) They are different in meaning.(2) They differ only in one sound segment.(3) The different sounds occur in the same position in the strings. Minimal set -A group of words which meet all the above 3 conditions. Eg: big-dig-pig-wig, pill-bill-till-kill, etc. Provide two minimal pairs for each of the following groups of English phonemes. ? (A) /t/, /d/ (B) /m/, /n/ (C) /e/, /i:/ 2.8.2 The phoneme theoryThe “minimal pairs” shows that the word phoneme simply refers to “a unit of clear sound contrast”, the existence of a minimal pair automatically gives phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.最小对立对的测试表明：音位是“外在的语音对立单位”；最小对立对的存在自动地赋予具有区别对立功能的语音以音位的地位，语言学系统就是建立在对立的概念之上的，我们选择了一个音而不是另一个，正是通过这个才得以区分不同的词。2.8.3 Allophones (1) Phone音素-a phonetic unit or segment, it doesnt necessarily distinguish meaning. 音素是从语音的自然属性角度划分出来的最小语音单位。Eg: s and t do , as in si:m and ti:m. But t and th, k and kh dont, as in sth%p and st%p, diskh(.n and disk(.n). Phoneme音位-The basic unit of distinctive value in phonology, it is an abstract unit, not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. (A phoneme is capable of distinguish meaning). 音位是语言中有区别词义功能的最小语音单位。Eg: The phoneme /p/ is represented differently in phit, tiph and spitPlease note: Phonemic transcriptions are put between slant lines / / while phonetic transcriptions are between square bracket . Phonetic transcriptions are broad ones. Allophones音位变体-The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. Eg: clear l and dark are allophones, they are the variants of the phoneme / l /.The choice of an allophone, that is, how a phoneme is represented by a phone, is not random in most cases, it is rule-governed by the phonetic context. 2.8.3 Allophones (2)Compare SegmentAny unit, at any level of representation, which is described as forming sequences with others. Thus, phonemes and morphemes are generally segments.Eg: lake has 3 sound segments or phonemes l ei and k for letters l, a, and k, the e is silent. boys has 2 segments or morphemes boy and s. PhoneA speech sound which is identified as the realization of single phoneme. Eg: t., i and p are phones which realize successive phonemes in t.ip (chip). Allophones are different phones by which an identical phoneme can be realized. PhonemeThe smallest distinctive sound unit in a given lge. Eg: tip in English realizes the 3 successive phonemes represented in spelling by the letters t, i and p.2.8.3 Allophones (3) Phonetic similarity: The allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.Eg: ph, p are both voiceless bilabial stops differing only in aspiration. Phonemic contrast音位对照: If phonetically similar sounds are 2 distinctive phonemes, they form a phonemic contrast (ie, they distinguish meaning).Eg: /p/ and/b/ can occur in the same environments (pin and bin) Complementary distribution: If phonetically similar sounds are allophones of the same phoneme, they do not distinguish meaning, but complement eachother in distribution (ie, they occur in different phonetic environments). Eg: The clear l always occurs before a vowel while the dark always occurs between a vowel and a consonant, or at the end of a word. So the 2 allophones are in complementary distribution. p and ph never contrast each other, they are 2 allophones of the same phoneme /p/, they occur in different environments .When one pronounces a word which begins with /p/, they choose the aspirated allophone ph, and if the /p/ occurs after the sound /s/, they will choose the unaspirated allophone p. Free variation: If 2 sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another does not cause a change of meaning, they are in free variation. Eg: either ( ai i:), economics ( eknomiks i:knomiks )2.9 Phonological process2.9.1 Assimilation (coarticulation) 2.9.2 Phonological process and phonological rules 2.9.3 Rule ordering (omitted)2.9.1 Assimilation (coarticulation) A process in which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. Regressive assimilation: a following sound influences a preceding sound（逆同化）anticipatory coarticulation （提前协同发音 see 2.6.1）Eg: lamb Progressive assimilation: a preceding sound influences a following sound（顺同化）perseverative coarticulation （持续协同发音 see 2.6.1）Eg: map2.9.2 Phonological process and phonological rules Phonological processA target segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. Phonological rules(1) Nasalization rule Eg: been bi: n(2) Dentalization rule Eg: health he l(3) Velarization rule Eg: key ki:2.10 Distinctive features Distinctive fea