English Lexicology.docx

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)CHAPTER1 INTRODUCTION1、Lexicology: the study of meanings and origins of words. Without grammar, very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.2、Word: (1) a minimal free form of a language (2) a sound unity (3) a unit of meaning (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.3、Vocabulary: (1) made up by the words in a language (2) all the words used in a particular historical period (3) all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.4、Sound and Meaning: a word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and there is no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself.5、Sound and Form: (soundpronunciation; formspelling) the written of English is an imperfect representation of the phonemic elements of the spoken language.6、Classification of Words: A. By use frequency: basic word stock基础词; non-basic word stock非基础词.B. By notion(function): content words 实义词；function words 功能词. C. By origin: native words 本土词; loan words外来词.A1、Basic Word Stock:(1). All national character; denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the language. (2). Stability; be in use for centuries; denote the commonest things necessary to life, they are likely to remain unchanged.(3). Productivity; mostly root words or monosyllabic words which form new words with other roots and affixes. (4). Polysemy（多义关系）(5). Collocability（搭配能力）A2、Non-Basic Vocabulary:(1) Terminology（术语）; technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas. e.g. hepatitis（肝炎）, indigestion（消化不良）, algebra（代数）, geometry（几何）(2) Jargon（行话）; specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions, communicate among themselves. People outside the circle have difficulty in understanding. e.g. paranoid(偏执狂)(3) Slang（俚语）; sub-standard language, e.g. pop-marijuana（大麻）; cop-police (4) Argot（黑话，隐暗语）;jargon of criminals. e.g. can-opener (all-purpose key), persuader (dagger匕首). (5) Dialectal words（方言）; e.g. bog (IrE =swamp). (6) Archaisms（古语）; once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. e.g. thou (you), wilt (will)(7) Neologisms（新词）; newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. e.g. futurology: a study that deals with future possibilities based on current trends B、Content Words and Functional Words:Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals. Functional words express the relation between notions and thus are known as empty word. They include prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries（助词） and articles.C1、Native Words:1. Neutral in style. E.g. begin (E) commence (F) ; kingly (E)royal (F)regal (L) ; rise (E)mount (F)ascend (L)2. Frequent in use. C2、Borrowed Words:Known as loan words 1. Denizens（同化词）; borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English. e.g. port from portus (L); pork from porc (F). 2. Aliens（非同化词）; retain their original pronunciation and spelling. e.g. kowtow (CH ); bazaar (Per) 3. Translation-loans（译借词）; form from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language. E.g. lama from lama (Tib)4. Semantic-loans（借义词）; e.g. pioneer=explorer, young pioneer from RussianCHAPTER2 the Development of the English VocabularyModern English is derived from a connection of Germanic dialects, which were first brought to the British Islands in the fourth and fifth centuries.1、The Indo-European Language Family:made up of most languages of Europe, the Near East and India; when groups of this language moved away from the original homeland, the language of each group grew and developed along different lines; they fall into Eastern set and a Western set; the Germanic family from the Western set includes: four Northern European languages( Norwegians, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish) + German, Dutch, Flemish(弗拉芒语), English.2、Three Phases of the Historical DevelopmentA. Old English (450-1150): has a vocabulary of about 50000 to 60000 words; monogeneous; with only a few borrowing from Latin and ScandinavianB. Middle English (1150-1500): a period of leveled endings; the French influence on English vocabulary; Latin words continued to make their way into the English vocabulary.C. Modern English(1500 up to the present): C1. Early Modern English (1500-1700): Renaissance; Latinate flavorC2. Late Modern English (1700 up to the present): Bourgeois Revolution; absorb words from all major languages of the world3、General Characteristics: receptivity, adaptability and heterogeneity; simplicity of inflection; relatively fixed word-order.4、Foreign Elements in the English Vocabulary:Latin: i.e.: that is to say; etc.: and so on, cf.: compare, ibid: in the same bookGreek: Greek prefixes: anti-, hyper-; Greek verb suffix: -izeFrench: resume 简历; gourmet 美食家; clich 陈词滥调; liaison 联络; Limousine; champagneScandinavian: down, booth, bat, egg, skate, fellowOther English Elements: Italian: souta 小夜曲; German: quartz 石英; Dutch: Sauta Claus奏鸣曲; Spanish and Portuguese: bravo, port; Celtic: cradle5、Growth of Contemporary English Vocabulary:rapid growth of science and technology; space shuffle; social, economic and political changes; talk-shows; the influence of other cultures and languages; e.g. kungfu: martial artsCHAPTER3 Morphological Structure of English Words1、Modes of Vocabulary Development: creation: workaholic; semantic change: mouse; borrowing2、Morphological Structure of English Words: the study of the morpheme of English and of the way in which they are joined together to make words.3、Morphemes: the smallest functioning unit in the composition of; the minimal form of grammatical analysis.Classifying Morphemes: free vs bound; derivational vs inflectional; lexical vs grammaticalA. Free vs Bound: A1. Free morphemes: independent of other morphemes; have complete meanings in themselves; can be used as free grammatical units in sentences; identical with wordsA2. Bound morphemes: cannot occur as separate words; bound to other morphemes to form words; perform a particular grammatical function; chiefly found in derived words.B. Derivational vs Inflectional:B1. Derivational: used to derive new words; B2. Inflectional: (1) indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers; (2) confined to suffixesC. Content vs Grammatical:C1. Content morphemes: lexical, used to derive new words; C2. Grammatical morphemes: function as grammatical markers4、Identifying Morphemes: lexical morphemes; mono-morphemes; double-morpheme, triple-morpheme; four-morpheme; overfour-morpheme5、Morphemes and Word Formation:A. Affix: (1) form that are attached to words of words elements modify meaning or function; (2) bound morphemes; (3) fall into prefix and suffixB. Root StemBaseB1. Root: the basic form of word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity; carry the main component of meaning in a word; that part of a word form the remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removedB2. Stem: consist of single root or two root morphemes; can be a root morphemes plus one or more affixational morphemesB3. Base: a form to which affixes of any kind can be addedCHAPTER4 WORD FORMATION1、Affixation:The formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to bases. This process is also known as derivation(派生), According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixation falls into two subclasses: prefixation and suffixation.A. Prefixationthe formation of new words by adding prefixes to bases; Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the base but only modify its meaning. Negative prefixes; reversative or privative; pejorative prefix; prefix of degree or size; prefix of orientation and attitude; locative prefix, prefix of time and order; number prefix; conversation prefix; miscellaneous prefixA1. negative prefixa-: not without opposite to eg: atypical 非典型的dis-: not eg: not disobey, disorderin-, not eg: injustice, illegal, irregular, impossiblenon-,not eg: nonviolence un-,not e.g.unwillinglyA2. reversative or pravative prefixDe-,reversing the action eg: decentralize deforestation Dis-,reversing the action eg:disallowUn-,unlock unwrap unpackA3. pejorative prefix (贬义)Mal-,badly bad eg:maltreat malpracticeMis-, wrongly astray eg: misinterpret misleadingPseudo-,false imitation eg: PseudoscientificA4. prefix of degree or sizeArch-,supreme most eg:archbishopCo-,jointly, on equal footing eg: co-habitHyper-, extrem eg: HypercreativeExtra-, very eg: extra-largeMacro-,large eg:macroeconomymicro-,very small eg: microfilmmini-,little eg:minibusout-, surpassing eg: outlive out wit outnumber over-, excessive eg: overprotective overestimatesub-, secondary, less important subheading substandardsuper-,more than beyond very special eg:supenaturalsur-, over and above eg:surpassultra-, extreme eg:ultra-conservativeunder-,insufficient beneath eg: underpay undersurfaceA5.prefix of orientation and attitude; Anti-,against,opposite to eg:anti-abortionContra-,opposite, contrasting eg: contrafactualCounter-, against,opposite to eg:counter-strike Pro-,for on the side of eg: pro-authority A6.locative prefix, Extra-,outside eg:extra-curricular 课外extra-marital婚外 Fore-,front part of eg: forearmInter-,between among eg:interpersonIntra-,within eg:intra-classSuper-,above eg:superstructureTele-,distant eg:telecommunication telescopeTrans-,across, from one place to another eg: transformA7.prefix of time and order; ex-,former eg: ex-professorfore-,before eg: foretellpost-, after eg: post-electionpre-, before eg: pre-preparedre-, again back eg: reconsiderA8.number prefix; bi-, 2 eg: bicycle, bilingualtri-, 3 eg: tricycleuni-(mono-), uniformquard-,4 quadranglepenta-, 5 pentagonhexa-, 6 hexagon sep-, septuletmulti-(poly_), multi-purpose polysyllablesemi-/demi/hemi-,half semi-naked demigod hemispheremonorail (one rail). A9.conversation prefix;a-,asleep,alivebe-, befriend,bewildereden-,endangered enrichA10.miscellaneous prefixAuto-self autobiographyneo-,新 neo-expressionismpan-,泛 pan-Europeanproto-,first eg:prototypevice-,vice-governerB. suffixationthe formation of new words by adding suffixes to bases. change the grammatical function of bases. noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, B1. noun suffixes, -eer: skilled in engineer-er, having as dominant characteristic eg: teenager-ess, female empress-ette,compact cigarette-let, small, unimportant-ster, involved in eg: gangster-age, message of, process or state eg: mileage coverage-dom,state condition eg: martyrdom-ery/-ry, condition or behavior-ful, amount contained in eg:mouthful-hood, adulthood-ing, the material of eg:matting-ism, doctrine of eg: terrorism-ship, occupation ,position , friendship, sportsmanship. -ant, occupation and participation eg: assistant applicant-ee, receiver of the action eg: addressee -ent, aperson or thing eg: respondent-er/or doer of the action eg: commander-al the pocess of eg: approval survival-ance action eg: insurance-ation process of eg: realization addition-ence, action eg: persistence-ing action of wedding-ment result of eg: assessment-ity, state or condition eg: intensity -ness state or quality eg: youthfulness-ese member of eg:Chinese-an citizen and language of eg: Australian -ist adherent to beliefs and behavior eg: racist-ite,member of eg: chomskyiteB2. adjective suffixes,-ed blued-eyed -ful, full of successful-ish, somewhat like childish, foolish-less, without priceless,-like,likelady-like-ly, have the quality of friendly-y, somewhat like smoky, bloody-al relating to sentimental -esque,having the properities of chaplinespues-ic, patriotic -ous having a particular quality courageous-able possibility permissible -ative, talktive, B3. adverb suffixes-ly, to a degree eg:gradually-ward(s), direction downward-wise, in manner sleep-walker-wiseB4.verb suffixes,-ate give or make or become originate-en make or become strengthen lengthen-ify make solidify glorify-ize involving or related to symbolize institutionize2、CompoundingCompound is the formation of new words by joining two or more bases. a compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word. A. Characteristics of compoundsphonological featuresthe word stress usually occurs on the first constituent semantic featuresone-wordnessgrammatical featurestend to fill a single grammatical slot in a sentence orthographical featuresCompounds are written either solid or hyphenated or like free phrases.B. Formation of compoundsNoun: moonwalk toothache tell-tale deadline Adj: law-abiding Thread-bare easygoingVerb: nickname honeymoon lip-read chain-smoker3、Conversion the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. conversion to nouns : doubt search catch help wrap pass white drunk conversion to verbs : pocket oil skin pump nurse cash mail emptyconversion to adjs : iron math(mathmatical) consumer efficiency5、Blendingthe formation of new words by combining parts of 2 words or a word plus a part of another word.Head+tail eg:chocoholicHead+head eg: comsat=communication satellite Head+word eg: midicareWord+tail e.g.: workfareA. Clipping The formation of new words by cutting apart of the original and using what remains instead.a) front clipping eg: quake b) back clipping eg: exec from executivec) front and back clipping eg: flu from influenza流行性感冒d) phrase clipping eg: running stomach B. Acronymy 首字母缩略法The process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of composite names of social and political organizations or phrases used as technical terms. Words formed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms, depending on the pronunciation of the words.B1. Initialisms: letters represent fuel words, letters represent constituents in a compound or just pars of a word. VOA :voice of America; BBC British Broadcasting company; UFO: unidentified flying Object; TV television; ID: identification; TB tuberculosis; CA cancer; N-bomb neutron bomb中子弹. B2. Acronyms: words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal wordNATO north Atlantic treaty organization; AIDs Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome; TEFL teaching English as a foreign language; ATM automatic telling machine6、Back-formationthe method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. diagnose from diagnosis, emote from emotion, sculpt from sculptor, eavesdrop from eavesdropping, laze from lazy7、Sound ReduplicationThe formation of compound words by repeating the same element with little or no change.E.g. tick-tuck, teeny-weeny8、Commonization of Proper NamesNemesis (复仇女神 to 复仇者), Utopia (乌托邦 to 理想中最美好的社会), Boycott(在爱尔兰的英籍土地承租管理人，艰困时期据减佃农地租遭抵制 to 抵制), Champagne(香巴尼 法国东北部地区 to 香槟酒)CHAPTER 5 WORD MEANING AND COMPONENTIAL(成分) ANALYSIS1、Word Meaninga word is the combination of form and meaning; from refers to both its pronunciation and spelling; meaning is what the form stands forA. Reference (所指关系)The relationship between language and the world; only when a connection has been established between the linguistic sign and a referent(所指对象), does the sign become meaning; the reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary(武断的) and conventional(约定俗成).B. Concept Concept is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the worldEven in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words.C. Sense（语义）Sense is the meaning of ”meaning”; sense denotes the relationships inside the language.2、 Motivation（理据） Refers to the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaningOnomatopoeic Motivation(拟声理据): the phonetic forms suggest the meanings as the words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. E.g. bang, ping-pang, miaow, tick-tuck;Morphological Motivation(形态理据): Compounds and derived words are multi-mprphemic words and meanings of many of them are the sum total of the morphemes combined. E.g. airmail, reading-lamp, miniskirt, hopeful; Semantic Motivation(语义理据): the mental associations based on the conceptual meaning of a word. E.g. the mouse of river; He is fond of the bottle; The pen is mightier than the sword;Etymological Motivation (词源理据): The origin of words more often than not throw light on their meanings; All the words communized from proper names can be explained in terms of their origins. E.g. a laconic answer= a short answer Types of meaning Grammatical meaning and lexical meaningLexical meaning: Conceptual meaning and associative meaningAssociative meaning: Connotative meaning; Stylistic meaning; Affective meaning; collocative meaningCHAPTER6 SENSE RELATIONS 语义关系1、Polysemy 多义关系A. diachronic approach 历时角度 primary/derived meaningB. synchronic approach 共时角度central/minor meaning Two process of development：radiation 辐射 concatenation 连锁2、Homonymy 同形同音异义关系 words different in meaning ,identical in sound and /or spelling.A. perfect homonyms