托福基础阅读讲义.doc

923b4580b06f60a3a4ca2855fcb7cbb6.pdf- 42 -托福基础阅读目录一. 基本词法以介绍二. 基本句型介绍三. 非句子修饰成分介绍四. 三大从句介绍五. 其他语法以及修饰成分介绍六. 复合句分析七. 阅读文段讲解一. 基本句法概念介绍1.1主语:1.1.1 名词 e.g.1.1.2. 动名词 e.g.1.1.3. 不定式 e.g.1.1.4. 句子 e.g.1.2谓语:1.2.1. 及物动词 e.g.1.2.2. 不及物动词 e.g.1.2.3. 系动词 e.g.1.2.4. 情态动词 e.g.1.2.5. 助动词 e.g.1.3宾语/表语:1.3.1. 名词 e.g.1.3.2 形容词 e.g.1.3.3. 不定式 e.g.1.3.4. 动名词 e.g.1.3.5. 句子 e.g.1.4定语:1.4.1. 名词 e.g.1.4.2. 形容词 e.g.1.4.3. 介词 e.g.1.4.4. 分词 e.g.1.4.5. 不定式 e.g.1.4.6. 句子 e.g.1.5状语:1.5.1. 副词 e.g.1.5.2. 介词短语 e.g.1.5.3. 分词 e.g.1.5.4. 不定式 e.g.1.5.5. 句子 e.g.二. 五大基本句型2.1.主语+谓语（不及物动词）The flower blooms.I sometimes stay in bed until lunchtime.Everyday I thought about postcards.2.2 主语+谓语（及物动词）+宾语We learn TOEFL.I did not enjoy theatreI could not hear the actorsI could not bear the loud noise in the house.Postcards always spoil my holidaysI visited museums and sat in public gardens.I read a few lines, but I did not understand a word.2.3 主语+系动词+表语We feel well/are promising students.I got very angry常见的系动词：be动词， feel, look, sound, smell等表示“感觉”的动词；become, go, get等表示“变成”类的动词；remain, stay等表示“保持，存在”的动词2.4 主语+谓语+间接宾语+直接宾语 =主语+谓语+直接宾语+to(for, of, on)+间接宾语He buys me a book. = He buys a book for me.A friendly waiter taught me a few words of ItalianThen he lent me a bookMy holidays passed quickly, but I did not send cards to my friends. 常见的动词：give, lend, send, show, offer, tell, sell, teach, write, bring, deliver(to), buy, make, get, choose, leave留下, order（for）, ask(of)2.5 主语+谓语+宾语+宾语补足语I find the book there.当宾语补足语是宾语的“发出动作”者时，表示主动。I found him laughing.当宾语补足语是宾语的“接受动作”者时，表示被动。I hear my name called.常见的此类动词：see, hear, feel, keep, leave, catch, find, make, have, get备注: 1. 只能接动名词作宾语的动词：admit，advise， advocate, risk，appreciate，envy，avoid，consider，delay，deny，dislike，enjoy，escape，excuse, finish，forgive，understand，give up，imagine，keep，mind，miss，practice，put off，resist，suggest; cant help，cant stand，devote to，look forward to，stick to，be used to，be addicted to, object to, give up 2. 只能接不定式作宾语的动词：happen，offer，promise ，agree，refuse，decide, determine，pretend，fail，learn，wish，hope，expect，afford 3. 接动名词、不定式均可，意义相同的动词：like，love，dislike，hate，begin，star，continue，prefer，cant bear/endure，cease4. 下列词接动名词和不定式均可，但意义不同的动词：forget，go on，mean，regret，remember，stop，tryStop to do 停下来去做 stop doing 停止做Forget to do 忘记要做 forget doing 忘记做过Remember to do 记得要做 remember doing 记得做过Regret to do 遗憾要做 regret doing 后悔做过Try to do 企图做，尽力做 try doing 试着做Go on to do 继续做（另一件事)go on doing 继续做（同一件事）Mean to do 打算做mean doing 意味做三. 非句子修饰成分介绍3.1定语3.1.1概念: 用来修饰、限定、说明名词或代词的品质与特征3.1.2前置定语: 修饰成分+n.(名词 形容词 介词短语 分词短语 不定时都可)e.g. a beautiful girl an easy TOEFL test3.1.3后置定语:n+ adj phrase形容词短语:a place harmful to studentsprep phrase介词短语: a couple in the hotelv-ing/-ed phrase分词短语: a person kissing a girl; a test called TOEFL 不定式(to do): a way to solve the problem分词做后置定语和谓语动词的区别:固定句式: 3.1.4 备注 分词短语作后置定语时,其逻辑主语是其修饰的名词 不定代词只能用后置定语修饰(some, something, somebody，someone，any, anything，anybody，anyone，nothing，nobody，no one，every, everything，everybody，everyone，all, each, both, much, many，(a) little,（a）few, other（s）, another, none, one, either, neither) 不定式作后置定语其逻辑主语是第三者: the way to solve the problem （sb use the way to solve the problem）3.2 同位语3.2.1 概念: 一个名词(或其它形式)对另一个名词或代词进行解释，限定或说明，这个名词(或其它形式)就是同位语。 A, B e.g Victor, our new teacher, is very kind to us A, or B A, such as. A of B e.g. the city of Beijing3.3 插入语3.3.1 概念: 在一个句子中间插入一个成分,它不作句子的何种成分,也不和句子的何种成分发生结构关系。 A,B,C A-B-C A(B)C3.4 状语3.4.1 概念: 修饰谓语动词或是整个句子的成分3.4.2 副词作状语 e.g. Recently, I took a TOEFL test.3.4.3 介词短语 e.g. There are 30 promising students studying TOEFL in theclassroom.3.4.4 现在分词短语 e.g. But some water will remain, clinging to all solid surfaces.Using a gin, the worker could produce up to 50 pounds of lint a day.3.4.5过去分词短语 e.g. Accepted by many anthropologists in the late nineteenth,the theory spread out quickly.Allowed to choose what pair they wanted, thechimpanzees most always choose the one with highertotal.3.4.6不定式短语 e.g. To verify the theory, anthropologists need to make a lot of investigations.规则四. 三大从句介绍4.1主从句在一个句子中，主句只有一个，从句可以有多个或者没有。主语+谓语+宾语，主语+谓语+宾语 “主语+谓语+宾语 and 主语+谓语+宾语”，或是“主语+谓语+宾语+引导词+主语+谓语+宾语”三大从句：名词性从句：主语从句，宾语从句，表语从句，同位语从句。定语从句状语从句4.2 主语从句4.2.1 概念: 一个或多个句子在整个句子中做主语4.2.2引导词：what, whatever, that, whether, when, why, where, who4.2.3句子结构：That/Whether/ When/ Why/ Where+完整的句子(主谓宾)+主句动词e.g. That he finished writing the composition in such a short time surprised us all. Whether we will go for an outing tomorrow remains unknown. When we are going for a picnic has not been decided yet.What/Whatever/who+不完整的句子+主句动词e.g. What we need is time.Whatever you did is right.Who we are is unknownWho will be our new teacher is unknown4.2.4 形式主语结构：为了防止句子头重脚轻，通常把形式主语it放在句首位置，真正主语搁置于句末。 e.g. It is strange that the man should have stuck to his silly ideas. It is a pity that we wont be able to go to the south to spend our summer vacation. It is still a mystery what caused the accident.4.3同位语从句4.3.1 概念: 一个句子充当同位语,对句子中的名次进行补充说明实质：名词=从句（从句是对名词的详细说明）e.g. The idea that you can do this work well without thinking is quite wrong.They introduced the idea that children could learn to read as babies.The question whether we should call in a specialist was answered by the family doctor.I have no idea what size shoes she wears.Have you got any idea who will take over now that the president has resigned?4.4 定语从句4.4.1. 概念: 用来修饰主句中的某一名词或代词或整个主句的句子,因为其作用相当于形容词，故也称作形容词性从句。e.gHarry Potter is a smart boy.Harry Potter is boy who has magical power.4.4.2 先行词概念：被定语从句修饰的词或句子（名词，代词或整个主句的句子）叫先行词。定语从句一般紧跟在它所修饰的先行词之后。4.4.3关系词在先行词和定语从句之间起连接作用的词叫关系词。关系词有关系代词和关系副词两种。e.g 关系词Harry Potter is boy who has magical power. 先行词 定语从句4.4.4 按定语从句种类: 限定型和非限定型2.1 限定型定语从句概念：是先行词在意义上不可缺少的定语，用于修饰和限定先行词。如果去掉，主句的意思就不完整或失去意义。书写时不用逗号与先行词分开。e.gShe was wearing a full-length skirt which swept the ground.（skirt是先行词,which是下句的主语, which swept the ground是限制性定语从句）The fish (which) we bought was not fresh.（The fish是先行词，which 做宾语，常省略, (which) we bought wes not fresh.是限制性定语从句）Pumas are large, cat-like animals which are found in America.（定语从句which are found in America修饰先行词pumas）2.2 非限制性定语从句2.2.1概念：非限制性定语从句在意义上只是一个附加修饰语，对先行词或主句作些附加的说明。如果去掉，主句的意思仍然清楚。书写时往往用逗号与先行词分开。e.gI,whoamyourfriend once, will hate you from now on.（I是先行词，whoamyourfriend是非限制性定语从句，对先行词起附加说明的作用）They set up a state of their own, where they would be free to keep Negroes as slaves.（where they would be free to keep Negroes as slaves对主句作进一步的补充说明）2.2.2 在下列情况下，通常使用非限制性定语从句。A当先行词表示的是世界上独一无二的人或物时。e.g Thesun,whichgivesuslightandheat,isafixedstar. LastyearIvisitedthePeoplesGreatHall,wheremanyimportantmeetingsareheld.B当定语从句修饰整个主句时。e.g TaiwanbelongstoChina,aseveryoneknows. Theman wasa killer,whichwehadntexpected.C当先行词本身指示意义十分明确时。e.g Icongratulatemyneighbour,whosesonhasjustwontheelection.These friendly dogs, which were first brought from Asia, were used as watchdogs even in Roman times.2.2.3非限制性定语从句的五个“不能”A.关系词不能用thatB.关系词不能用why，只能用forwhichC. 有且只有as能放整个句首，which不能D. “介词+关系代词”其中的关系代词不能用as。E. 指人的关系代词作宾语时，只能用宾格whom;不能用who替换，也不能省略。3. 按关系词分类3.1 关系代词引导的定语从句引导定语从句的关系代词主要有who,whom,whose,which,that等。它们分别代替前面的先行词，并在定语从句中作主语、宾语或定语。3.1.1 Who:指人，在定语从句中作主语。e.g The pie committee telephoned a local garage owner who arrived in a recovery truck to salvage the pie dish.These days, people who do manual work often receive far more money than people who work in offices.3.1.2 Whom: 指人，在定语从句中做宾语。在口语或非正式文体中，whom可省略或可用who来代替，但在介词后面以及在非限制性定语从句中只能用whom。e.g. Therearesomepeoplewhom/whowelikeandotherswhom/whowedislike. Mr.Tom,whomIspoketoonthephonelastnight,isveryinterestedinourplan. Mr.Tom,towhomIspokeonthephonelastnight,isveryinterestedinourplan.Twomen,neitherofwhomIhadeverseenbefore,cameintomyoffice.3.1.3Whose: 指人，在定语从句中做定语A recent case concerns Jane Butlin whose fianc, John, runs a successful furniture business.3.2 关系副引导的定语从句引导定语从句的关系副词有when,where或why等。when,where,why分别在定语从句中作状语，在意义上相当于介词+which结构，分别代替表示时间、地点或原因的先行词。3.2.1 when: 指时间，在定语从句中作时间状语。e.g Tom cameatatimewhenweneededhimmost.(when=atwhich)There was a time when the owners of shops and businesses in Chicago that to pay large sums of money to gangsters in return for protection.（when=at which）3.2.2 where: 指地点，在定语从句中作地点状语。e.g We sometimes imagine a desert island to be a sort of paradise where the sun always shines.(where=inwhich)The hunt for the puma began in a small village where a woman picking blackberries saw a large cat only five yards away from her.(where=inwhich)3.2.3 why: 指原因，在限制性定语从句中作原因状语。e.g Pleasetellmethereasonwhyyoulike garlic.(why=forwhich)4.5 状语从句五. 其他语法以及修饰成分介绍5.1并列结构5.1.1并列连词的用法: 并列连词连接结构功能性质均相同的成分-必须完全对等5.1.2常用并列连词：and/but/so/yet/nor/or/not only/but also/eitheror或neithernor, as well as, more than, rather than, no less than5.1.3并列对象的判断n 看并列连词后面是什么结构（词性）n 根据并列连词后面的结构（词性）寻找并列连词前面的对应的部分5.1.4 练习l In general, the tests work most effectively when the qualities to be measured can be most precisely defined and least effectively when what is to be measured or predicted can not be well defined. l Astrophysicists working with ground-based detectors at the South Pole and balloon borne instruments are closing in on such structures, and may report their findings soon. l It is not that the scales in the one case, and the balance in the other, differ in the principles of their construction or manner of working; but that the latter is a much finer apparatus and of course much more accurate in its measurement than the former.5.2 比较结构5.2.1三要素：比较对象，比较因素，比较结果5.2.2比较句的形式 S + Vi + adv的比较级+ than +e.g. I run faster than Kobe does. S + Vt + adj比较级 O + than + e.g. I have more books than does Tom.5.3 倒装句5.3.1完全倒装：又称全部倒装,是指将句子中的谓语全部置于主语之前。e.g. Here lie the answers to the question.规则: 5.3.2部分倒装：指将谓语的一部分如助动词或情态动词倒装至主语之前,而谓语动词无变化。如果句中的谓语没有助动词或情态动词，则需添加助动词do, does或did，并将其置于主语之前。e.g. Only in this way can you solve this problemNot until twelve oclock did she go to bed last night六. 复合句分析n 通读句子,找到表示逻辑关系的连词n 找出所有的从句（只用找是不是从句，不用读）n 找到主句的唯一动词（找到主句）n 分析句子的其他结构（分词, 倒装等）要求： 练习：The rapid destruction of the tropical rain forests, which are the ecosystems with the highest known species diversity on Earth, has awakened people to the importance and fragility of biological diversity.Only 1 percent of the species that have lived on Earth have survived to the present, and it was largely chance that determined which species survived and which died out. Life on Earth has continually been in flux as slow physical and chemical changes have occurred on Earth, but life needs time to adapt time for migration and genetic adaptation within existing species and time for the proliferation of new genetic material and new species that may be able to survive in new environments.Passenger terminals, like the luxury express trains that hurled people over spots, spotlight the romance of railroading.Equally important to everyday life were the slow freight trans chugging through industrial zones, the morning and evening commuter locals shuttling back ions and urban terminals, and the incessant comings and goings that occurred in the classifications, or switching, yards.Kindergartens, vacation schools, extracurricular activities, and vocational education and counseling extended the influence of public schools over the lives of students, many of whom in the larger industrial cities were the children of immigrants.Schools trained women to be consumer homemakers cooking, shopping, decorating, and caring for children efficiently in their own homes, or if economic necessity demanded, as employees in the homes of others. In a rapidly industrializing society, most Victorians agreed that art was an essential moral ingredient in the home environment, and in many middle- and working-class homes craft was the only form of art.Proponents believed that if simple design, high-quality materials, and honest construction were realized in the home and its appointments, then the occupants would enjoy moral and therapeutic effects.These are the central nervous system (the nerve cord mentions above), consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, consisting of the cranial, spinal, and peripheral nerves, together with their motor and sensory endings.Athenian pottery establishments are known to have concentrated on a limited range of fine ware, but a rural pottery establishment on the island of Thasos produced many types of pottery and roof tiles too, presumably to meet local demand. The shared needs and pressures that encourage extended-family ties are less prominent in settled than in nomadic societies.Such nests also act as humidity regulators by allowing rain to drain into the bottom sections of the nest so that the eggs are not in direct contact with the water.Most commercial incubators heat the eggs fairly evenly from top to bottom, thus ignoring the birds method of natural incubation, and perhaps reducing the viability and survivability of the hatching chicks.In areas where weather can become cold after eggs are laid, it is very important to maintain a deep foundation of nesting material to act as insulator against the cold bottom of the box.In his stories and novels, Twain drew on his own experiences and used dialect and common speech instead of literary language, touching off a major change in American prose style.Theodore Dreiser, the foremost naturalist writer, in novels such as Sister Carrie, grimly portrayed a dark world in which human beings were tossed about by forces beyond their understanding or control.Its altitude is a mere couple of hundred feet, but it is high ground on a peninsula elsewhere close to sea level, and its drainage is so critical that a difference of inches in elevation can bring major changes in its plant communities.The most important remaining patches of scrub lie along the Lake Wales Ridge, a chain of paleoislands running for a hundred miles down the center of Florida, in most places less than ten miles wide.Some functions result directly from the ingenuity of the citizenry, but most functions result from the needs of the local area and of the surrounding hinterland (the region that supplies goods to the city and to which the city furnishes services and other goods). Chicago, for example, possesses an almost unparalleled situation: it is located at the southern end of a huge lake that forces east-west transportation lines to be compressed into its vicinity, and at a meeting of significant land and water transport routes. Philadelphia and Boston both originated at about the same time as New York and shared New Yorks location at the western end of one of the worlds most important oceanic trade routes, but only New York possesses an easy-access functional connection (the Hudson-Mohawk lowland) to the vast Midwestern hinterland. By about 3100 B.C., they were apparently subjugated in southern Mesopotamia by the Sumerians, whose name became synonymous with the region immediately north of the Persian Gulf, in the fertile lower valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates. Because the Akkadians thought of Sumerian as a classical language (as ancient Greek and Latin are considered today), they taught it to educated persons and they inscribed vocabulary, translation exercises, and other study aids on tablets. 七. 阅读文段讲解1Of all modern instruments, the violin is apparently one of the simplest. It consists in essence of a hollow, varnished wooden sound box, or resonator, and a long neck, covered with a fingerboard, along which four strings are stretched at high tension. The beauty of design, shape, and decoration is no accident: the proportions of the instrument are determined almost entirely by acoustical considerations. Its simplicity of appearance is deceptive. About 70 parts are involved in the construction of a violin. Its tone and its outstanding range of expressiveness make it an ideal solo instrument. No less important, however, is its role as an orchestral and chamber instrument. In combination with the larger and deeper-sounding members of the same family, the violins form the nucleus of the modern symphony orchestra. The violin has been in existence since about 1550. Its importance as an instrument in its own right dates from the early 1600s, when it first became standard in Italian opera orchestras. Its stature as an orchestral instrument was raised further when in 1626 Louis XIII of France established at his court the orchestra known as Les vingt-quatre violins du Roy (The Kings 24 Violins), which was to become widely famous later in the century.生词积累单词意思词根/衍生词/易混词instrumentn. 工具 乐器Instrumentalapparentlyad. 明显地Appear a