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Socrates Born: 469 B.C. Birthplace: Athens, Greece Died: 399 B.C. (execution by poison) Best Known As: The great Greek philosopher who drank hemlockSocrates is the ancient Greek thinker who laid the early foundations for Western philosophical thought. His Socratic Method involved asking probing questions in a give-and-take which would eventually lead to the truth. Socrates was born in Athens and fought as a foot soldier in the Peloponnesian War with Sparta, but in later years became a devotee of philosophy and argument. He spent years in the public places of Athens, engaging his fellow citizens in philosophical discussions and urging them to greater self-analysis. Socratess iconoclastic attitude didnt sit well with everyone, and at age 70 he was charged with heresy(异端学说） and corruption of local youth. Convicted, he carried out the death sentence by drinking hemlock, becoming one of historys earliest martyrs of conscience. Socratess most famous pupil was Plato, who in turn instructed the philosopher AristotleImportance柏拉图Plato was one of the early stars of Western philosophy. The son of an aristocrat, he studied under the great Greek thinker, Socrates. After years of travel and study, Plato founded the Academy in his native Athens in 387 B.C.; it became a famous hotbed of philosophical and scientific discussion, and is regarded by many as the first known university in the world. Platos writings mostly take the form of dialogues, or dialectics, in which knowledge is revealed as two characters ask and answer questions of each other. (Socrates was often one of the characters.) Platos text The Republic, in which he lays out his ideas on the perfect state, remains a staple of college reading lists around the world.Platos cause of death is unknown, though its generally assumed that his death was related to old age. Another famous - and unproven - old story is that Plato died of phthiriasis, or consumption by lice. Platos most famous pupil was that other great Greek thinker, Aristotle. Platos exact date of birth is unknown; most scholars believe it was during the years 429-427 B.C.亚里士多德Aristotle is one of the big three in ancient Greek philosophy, along with Plato and Socrates. (Socrates taught Plato, who in turn instructed Aristotle.) Aristotle spent nearly 20 years at Platos Academy, first as a student and then as a teacher. After Platos death he traveled widely and educated a famous pupil, Alexander the Great, the Macedonian who nearly conquered the world. Later Aristotle began his own school in Athens, known as the Lyceum. Aristotle is known for his carefully detailed observations about nature and the physical world, which laid the groundwork for the modern study of biology. Among his works are the texts Physics, Metaphysics, Rhetoric and Ethics. He was succeeded at the Lyceum by his student Theophrastus孟德尔A monk with a scientific streak, Mendel made botanical discoveries which became the basis of modern genetics. His careful cross-breeding of thousands of pea plants led Mendel to key insights, now called Mendels Laws of Heredity, about how inherited traits are passed on from generation to generation. As a young man Mendel entered the St. Thomas Monastery in Brnn, Austria (now Brno, the Czech Republic). He devoted much of his time to teaching and scientific inquiry. Between 1856 and 1863 he catalogued successive generations of pea plants with statistical precision, looking for clues to how traits like color and shape were reproduced. Among his findings were the law of segregation (which includes the notion of dominant and recessive genes) and the law of independent assortment (which says that an organisms individual traits are passed on independently of one another). Mendel published Experiments in Plant Hybridization in 1865, but his theories were not widely embraced until the 1900s.Wegener(born Nov. 1, 1880, Berlin, Ger. died Nov. 1930, Greenland) German meteorologist and geophysicist. After earning a Ph.D. in astronomy (1905), he became interested in paleoclimatology and traveled to Greenland to research polar air circulation. He formulated the first complete statement of the continental drift hypothesis, which he presented in The Origin of Continents and Oceans (1915). His theory won some adherents, but by 1930 most geologists had rejected it because of the implausibility of his postulations for the driving force behind the continents movement. It was resurrected in the 1960s as part of the theory of plate tectonics. Wegener died during his fourth expedition to Greenland.Charles Darwin Born: 12 February 1809 Birthplace: Shrewsbury, England Died: 19 April 1882 (heart attack) Best Known As: The naturalist who came up with the theory of evolution Charles Darwins book The Origin of Species was a scientific bombshell in its day and remains a much-discussed work 150 years later. Darwin was the official naturalist aboard the British ship H.M.S. Beagle during its world voyage of 1831-36. His observations during the journey led him to develop a theory of evolution: the notion that species evolve as the fittest members survive and pass their traits on to future generations. Darwin announced his initial ideas of natural selection in 1858, and in 1859 he formally published The Origin of Species. The book was both popular and controversial: although Darwin was a religious man himself and once considered a career in the church, his theory of evolution was attacked by those who felt it was contrary to the teachings of the Bible. Today Darwins theories are embraced by nearly all scientists and his theories are the starting point for the modern study of evolutionary biology, even as the religious arguments continue. Darwin published many other books and pamphlets on the topic in later years, most notably The Descent of Man (1871).The full title and subtitle of Darwins famous book was, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or, The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. Darwin was born on the same day as U.S. president Abraham Lincoln. Darwin was buried in Westminster Abbey, near the grave of Sir Isaac Newton.Steven Hawkin Born: 8 January 1942 Birthplace: Oxford, England Best Known As: The author of A Brief History of Time Stephen Hawking is considered the worlds foremost living theoretical physicist. Hes an expert on black holes whose stated intention is to unify quantum mechanics with Einsteins general theory of relativity, forming a single theory to explain the origin (and end) of the universe. Hawking, a professor of mathematics at Cambridge University, is the author of the best-selling book A Brief History of Time and something of a celebrity: he has made guest appearances on the TV shows Star Trek and The Simpsons. Hawking has suffered from ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, also called Lou Gehrigs disease) since he was a young man and is confined to a wheelchair. He held the celebrated post of Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge from 1979 until 2009.According to Hawkings own site, the Lucasian Chair at Cambridge was founded in 1663 with money left in the will of the Reverend Henry Lucas, who had been the Member of Parliament for the University. It was first held by Isaac Barrow, and then in 1663 by Isaac Newton.Albert Einstein Born: 14 March 1879 Birthplace: Ulm, Germany Died: 18 April 1955 (heart failure) Best Known As: Creator of the theory of relativity Thanks to his theory of relativity, Albert Einstein became the most famous scientist of the 20th century. In 1905, while working in a Swiss patent office, Einstein published a paper proposing a special theory of relativity, a groundbreaking notion which laid the foundation for much of modern physics theory. (The theory included his famous equation e=mc.) Einsteins work had a profound impact on everything from quantum theory to nuclear power and the atom bomb. He continued to develop and refine his early ideas, and in 1915 published what is known as his general theory of relativity. By 1920 Einstein was internationally renowned; he won the Nobel Prize in 1921, not for relativity but for his 1905 work on the photoelectric effect. In 1933 Einstein moved to Princeton, New Jersey, where he worked at the Institute for Advanced Studies until the end of his life. Einsteins genius is often compared with that of Sir Isaac Newton; in 2000 Time magazine named him the leading figure of the 20th century.Einstein was famously rumpled and frizzy-haired, and over time his image has become synonymous with absent-minded genius. He sent a famous letter to Franklin Roosevelt in 1939, warning that Germany was developing an atomic bomb and urging Allied research toward the same goal. Einstein married Mileva Maric in 1903. They had two sons: Hans Albert (b. 1904) and Eduard (b. 1910). They also had a daughter born before their marriage, Leiserl (b. 1902). She apparently was given for adoption or died in infancy. Mileva and Albert were divorced in 1914. He married his cousin Elsa Lwenthal in 1919, and they remained married until her death in 1936. The Institute for Advanced Studies has no formal link to Princeton University; however, according the IAS website, the two institutions have many historic ties and ongoing relationships. The Albert Einstein College of Medicine opened in New York City in 1955. It is part of Yeshiva University. Einstein did not create the school, but gave his permission to have his name used.Newton Born: 4 January 1643 Birthplace: Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, England Died: 20 March 1727 (bladder stone) Best Known As: The genius who explained gravity Isaac Newtons discoveries were so numerous and varied that many consider him to be the father of modern science. A graduate of Trinity College, Cambridge, Newton developed an intense interest in mathematics and the laws of nature which ultimately led to his two most famous works: Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) and Opticks (1704). Newton helped define the laws of gravity and planetary motion, co-founded the field of calculus, and explained laws of light and color, among many other discoveries. (A famous story says that Newton uncovered the laws of gravity after being hit on the head by a falling apple. There is no proof that this story is true. However, his assistant John Conduitt later wrote that Newton had said he was inspired to think about gravity after seeing an apple fall in his garden around 1666.) Newton was knighted in 1705 and upon his death in 1727 was the first scientist given the honor of burial in Westminster Abbey.Sir Isaac Newton was born on Christmas Day in 1642; however, with the calendar changes of the 19th century, that date became 4 January 1643. The January 4th date is commonly used today. Newton is often ranked 1-2 with Albert Einstein among historys leading physicists. Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge - a post later held by Stephen Hawking. Newton was good friends with astronomer Edmond Halley, of Halleys Comet fame. Newton was born just about one year after Galileo diedMaxwellborn June 13, 1831, Edinburgh, Scot. died Nov. 5, 1879, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, Eng.) Scottish physicist. He published his first scientific paper at age 14, entered the University of Edinburgh at 16, and graduated from Cambridge University. He taught at Aberdeen University, Kings College London, and Cambridge (from 1871), where he supervised the building of Cavendish Laboratory. His most revolutionary achievement was his demonstration that light is an electromagnetic wave, and he originated the concept of electromagnetic radiation. His field equations (see Maxwells equations) paved the way for Albert Einsteins special theory of relativity. He established the nature of Saturns rings, did important work on colour perception, and produced the kinetic theory of gases. His ideas formed the basis for quantum mechanics and ultimately for the modern theory of the structure of atoms and molecules.法拉第 Born: 22 September 1791 Birthplace: Newington, Surrey, England Died: 25 August 1867 Best Known As: Inventor of the first dynamo Although he had little formal education, Michael Faraday went on to become one of the most influential scientists in the field of electricity. He spent his professional career in the laboratory of the Royal Institution in London (1813-62), where he got his start as an assistant in 1813 to Sir Humphry Davy. By 1825 he had worked his way up to being laboratory director, and in 1833 he was made a professor of chemistry. In the lab he had great success with electrochemistry, and he even has an electrical unit named after him (a faraday is an amount of electricity measured during electrolysis). Faraday built the first dynamo, a copper disk that rotated between the poles of a permanent magnet and produced an electromotive force (something that moves electricity). His work in electromagnetic induction led to the development of modern dynamos and generators. Faraday also discovered the compound benzene.伽利略 Born: 15 February 1564 Birthplace: Pisa, Italy D