实用英语语法稿Lecture 16-18.doc

Lecture 16 Subjunctive MoodTeaching Aims：Knowledge Aims: subjunctive moodSkill Aims: The uses of subjunctive moodEmotion Aims: The meaning that subjunctive mood expressesImportant points:1. BE-subjunctive2.were-subjunctiveDifficult points: The cases that subjunctive mood is used.Leading-in:Discussion: 1. How many types of subjunctive mood? List them.2. In addition to the be-subjunctive and the were-subjunctive what can we use for expressing hypothetical meanings?General Information: MOOD, as a grammatical category, is a finite verb form that indicates whether an utterance expresses a fact (indicative mood), a command or request (imperative mood), or a non-fact and hypothesis (subjunctive mood). Modern English has not a developed mood system. Its indicative mood is unmarked, and over 90% of English sentences are expressed in this mood. The imperative mood is marked only when it occurs in an imperative sentence. Likewise, the subjunctive mood is marked only when it occurs in certain contexts, and is not so complicated as described in traditional grammars. In modern English, hypothesis can be expressed by a number of grammatical constructions, ie by the simple past/the past progressive/the past perfective , by the past tense of modal auxiliaries + infinitive / perfective infinitive, or by a special verb form denoting hypothesisthe subjunctive mood. There are two forms of the subjunctive: be-subjunctive and were-subjunctive. The present lecture will dwell on the uses of these two subjunctive forms.-16.1 BE-subjunctiveThe be-subjunctive, like the imperative, is realized by the base form of the verb. Whatever the person of the subject, the predicator invariably takes the base form. Consequently, where the clause has a plural subject, there is normally no distinction between indicative and subjunctive forms, except for the verb be. The subjunctive form of be is be for all persons. The be-subjunctive is use:1) In certain that-clausesThe be-subjunctive is commonly used in that-clauses to denote a command, decision, suggestion, etc. These that-clauses usually occur:a) after such verbs as decide, decree, demand, insist, move, order, prefer, propose, recommend, request, require, suggest, vote, etc.Eg: He ordered that all the books be sent at once. We propose that somebody neutral take the chair.b) after such adjectives as advisable, appropriate, desirable, essential, fitting, imperative, important, impossible, necessary, obligatory, proper, etc.Eg: It is essential that all the facts be examined first. It is necessary that he come back without delay.c) after such nouns as decision, decree, demand, instruction, order, requirement, resolution, etc.Eg: The board has given instructions that the agent fly to Boston. We were faced with the demand that this tax be abolished.This use of the be-subjunctive is quite common in formal style, especially in American English. This subjunctive form can sometimes be replaced by “should + infinitive”. Eg: He ordered that the books be sent at once. He ordered that the books should be sent at once. He ordered the books to be sent at once. 2) In certain adverbial clausesThe be-subjunctive is also used in adverbial clauses introduced by if, though, whatever, so long as, whether, lest, etc.Eg: If the rumor be true, everything is possible. Quietly we sat on the river bank lest the fish swim away. Whatever be his defense, we cannot tolerate his disloyalty.This use of the be-subjunctive is limited to formal style, while in informal style the indicative mood or “should/may + infinitive” are used instead.Cf: If the rumor is true, everything is possible. He hid himself in the bush lest he should be seen. Whatever his defense may be, we cant tolerate his disloyalty.3) In certain formulaic expressionsThe be-subjunctive is also used in some formulaic expressions to express a wish , prayer, curse, etc. The formulaic use of the be-subjunctive tends to be formal and old-fashioned in style.Eg: Long live the Peoples Republic of China! God bless you! So be it. Far be it from me to spoil the fun.16.2 WERE-subjunctiveThe were-subjunctive has only one form were, which applies to subjects of all persons, but which formally contrasts with the indicative form was only when it is used with first and third person singular subjects.The were-subjunctive is hypothetical or unreal in meaning and is used.1) In certain adverbial clausesThe were-subjunctive is commonly used in adverbial clauses introduced by if, if only, as if, as though, though, etc to denote an unreal condition or concession.Eg: If I were you, I should wait till next week. If only I were not so nervous. He behaves as though he were better than us. Though the whole world were against me, I would do what I consider as right.2) In certain nominal clausesThe were-subjunctive is also used in nominal clauses after verbs like wish, would rather, suppose, imagine, etc to denote a hypothetical situation.Eg: I wish it were spring all the year round. Id rather I were not at the site of the accident. Suppose the earth were flat.It must be noted that in present-day English, the were-subjunctive with first and third person subjects is often replaced by the indicative was in less formal style. Cf: I wish it was spring all the year round. Id rather I wasnt at the site of the accident. The were-subjunctive is obligatory, however, in the set expressions “as it were” (=so to speak) and “if I were you”, as well as in non-introduced conditional clauses with inverted word order, Eg: He is my best friend, my second self, as it were. Were I to do it, I should rely on you.16.3 Some few notes on ways of expressing hypothetical meanings Modern English has a number of devices for expressing hypothetical meanings. In addition to the be-subjunctive and the were-subjunctive, we can use past tense forms of verbs and past tense modals for the same purpose.1) Use of past tense forms of verbsThe past tense forms of verbs are usually used to express hypothesis in the following context.a) It is time (that) :Eg: It is time (that) we left this place.It is high time (that) you made up your mind.b) I would rather (that) you / he :Eg: Im sure he is keeping something back. Id rather he told me the truth.They offered me this expensive wine, but frankly Id rather they had offered me some beer.c) If only :Eg: If only I knew her address.If only she had listened to my advice.d) as if/ as though :Eg: He behaves as if he owned this place.The woman talked eloquently about the accident as though she had witnessed the whole thing.They are staring at me as if I was / were crazy.e) I wish (that) :Eg: I wish the sun was shining at this moment.I wish I hadnt eaten so much last night.2) Use of past tense modals The past tense modals are commonly used to express hypothesis in the following contexts.a) In conditionals: Eg: If I were you I would not miss this opportunity. If he be found guilty he would be sent to prison. If she had been invited, she would have attended the meeting. If they had caught the early train, they would have been here by now. If you should change your mind, do let me know. If he should refuse to appear in court, he might be held guilty.b) In implied conditionals:Eg: But for his help, I couldnt have achieved anything. Anyone who should do that would be laughed at. In different circumstances, I might have agreed. This same thing happening in wartime would amount to disaster.c) In other contexts:Eg: That she should forget met so quickly was rather a shock. That I should see a college student arrested for stealing! Oh that I could see him again! = I wish that I could see him again. Would that she could see her son now! =If only she could see her son now! Would that the flood might never come again! To think that he should have deserted his wife and children! To think that he would marry such a nasty woman! Who would have thought that things should come to such a tragic end? Who would have thought that the man living next door should be a hidden terrorist? The door was pushed open; who should come in but the woman they were talking about. He stepped into a cave and what should he see but a tigress with her baby tigers.Lecture 17 & 18 AuxiliariesTeaching aims: Knowledge Aims：auxiliariesSkill Aims：The uses of auxiliaries Emotion Aims：Epistemic and non-epistemic use of modalsImportant points: Modals and Semi-auxiliariesDifficult points: Semi-auxiliariesLeading-in: Discussion 1. What are modal meanings?2. What are semi-auxiliaries?General InformationAs has been pointed out before, English verbs, in terms of their functions in forming verb phrases, fall into two major categories: main verbs and auxiliaries. Auxiliaries can again be divided into primary auxiliaries, modal auxiliaries, and semi-auxiliaries. The function of primary auxiliaries (he, do, have) is to combine with main verbs to form complex verb phrases, and this has been dealt with in the previous lectures. The present lecture will concentrate on the use of modal auxiliaries and the next on semi-auxiliaries. -Lecture 17 Auxiliaries (I) As has been pointed out before, English verbs, in terms of their functions in forming verb phrases, fall into two major categories: main verbs and auxiliaries. Auxiliaries can again be divided into primary auxiliaries, modal auxiliaries, and semi-auxiliaries. The function of primary auxiliaries (do, have, be) is to combine with main verbs to form complex verb phrases, and this has been dealt with in the previous lectures. The present lecture will concentrate on the use of modal auxiliaries and the next on semi-auxiliaries.17.1 Modal auxiliariesIt is generally acknowledged that English has 13 modal auxiliaries (or “modals” for short). They are can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must, ought to, dare, need, used to. Morphologically, modals have no non-finite forms, nor -s form for third person singular present tense. Syntactically, modals can only be the initial element of a finite verb phrase and are invariably followed by a bare infinitive. In terms of semantics, modals have lexical meanings and no two modals can co-occur in a verb phrase. The tense distinctions of modals are not the chief markers of time reference, that is to say, their present forms do not necessarily refer to present time, nor do their past forms to the past. What is more, most modals are polysemous, and they behave differently in affirmative, negative, and interrogative sentences. Here is a survey of the uses of the modals.1) Can/could/(be able to) denoting “ability”To talk about “ability”, we can use can, could, and be able to. Can is commonly used to denote present ability, but in specific contexts, it may also refer to ability with future time reference. In the sense of “ability”, can may denote a single instance of ability, that is, the ability of doing something on a particular occasion (“Is there anything I can do for you?”); it may also refer to some general ability with present time reference (“He can drive a car”).Can and be able to are synonymous and are interchangeable in many cases. But to talk about future ability, the normal form to use is “will/shall be able to”, though can is also possible in specific contexts.To talk about past ability, we can use could and was/were able to. In positive statements, could only refers to some general ability in the past (“She could play the piano when she was six”). If we want to denote a single instance of past ability, we will have to use was/were able to. (“He was able to swim halfway before he collapsed”) This contrast, however, is neutralized in negative statements, et:He got so drunk that he couldnt/wasnt able to find the door.2) Can/could/may/might denoting “possibility” To talk about “possibility”, we can use may, might, can and could. Used in this sense, may and might are interchangeable and suggest no difference in time reference; only the use of might conveys greater uncertainty in tone, It should be noted that may in the sense of “possibility” occurs only in statements, whereas in questions can is used instead, eg:Where can he be?He may be in the office. May not in written form may mean very different things: “impossibility” or “prohibition”. In the sense of “impossibility”, stress normally falls on may; in denoting “prohibition”, stress falls on not. (Thus in written language, cant is often preferable to may not in the sense of “impossibility”), eg:He may not go tomorrow. (prohibition)He may not go tomorrow. (impossibility)Can and could in the sense of “possibility” are interchangeable with no difference in time reference. Only the use of could suggests greater uncertainty and, therefore, sounds more polite. But the use of can is usually restricted to negative statements and questions, while no such restriction exists with the use of could, eg:If you dont have a guide, you could lose your way.Can/Could the news be true?It cant/couldnt be true.Note the difference between the “possibility” expressed by can and that by may. In positive statements, can usually expresses “theoretically possibility”, while may expresses “factual possibility”, eg:Mr. Reed is in poor health. He can be ill at any time.Mr. Reed looks pale today. He may be ill.This contrast, however, is neutralized in negative statements and questions.In statements, “may/might have+-ed” is commonly used to speculate about past events. Here, too, the use of might suggests no difference in time reference; it only implies greater uncertainty about what was possible in the past. Speculations about past events can also be expressed by “can/could have+-ed”, but “can have+-ed” only appears in negative statements, eg:She cant/could have missed the train.Note that “might/could have+-ed” is sometimes used to talk about an unrealized possibility in the past, about something that was possible but did not happen, eg:You might have finished the work last week, but you didnt.3) Can/could/may/might denoting “permission”To ask for permission, we can use can, could, may, might. Compared with can/could, may/might sounds more formal; compared with can/may, the past forms sound more polite, implying no difference in time reference. In colloquial English, can is very frequently used to ask for permission, eg:Can I smoke in here?To give permission, we normally use can and may rather than could or might; the past forms, however, are possible when occurring in past time contexts, eg:Could I use your phone?Yes, of course you can.In those days anyone might/could enroll for this course.To refuse to give permission, we can use may not (with stress on not) or cannot, eg:Can I go out for a moment?No, you cant.May I use your car for a few days?No, you may not.In impersonal statements, may not can also be used to indicate what is not permitted by rules or regulations, eg:Borrowers may not take out of the library more than two books at a time.Note that the past form of may not (in the sense of refusal to give permission) is not might not. The notion of refusing to give permission in the past is usually expressed by other forms, eg:He was not allowed to go.I didnt permit him to go.4) Will/would denoting “volition”The sense of “volition” expressed by will/would includes weak volition and strong volition. a) Weak volition or “willingness” is common in second person requests “ Will you .?”, which, in fact, is a polite substitute for an imperative. But there are politer ways of making a request, and so “Will you?” tends to be toned down by other markers of politeness, eg:Will you kindly?Would you please?Would you be good/kind enough to?Note that in answer to a hypothetical request we normally use the corresponding non-hypothetical forms, eg:Would you let me hear from you soon?Yes, I will.Another type of weak volition is “intention” usually expressed by will with a first person subject. Will in this sense is generally contracted toll and cannot be replaced by would would, eg:Ill write to you as soon as I arrive. b)Strong volition or “insistence” is expressed by stressed will, which cannot be contracted to ll. Stressed will with a first person subject typically expresses the speakers insistence or obstinate determination to do something, eg:I will marry her although my parents strongly object to this marriage.Stressed will with a second or third person subject expresses the speakers feeling of exasperation at someone elses obstinacy or insistence, eg:He will go out without an overcoat although it is freezing outside.In past time contexts, stressed would can express strong volition in the past, and the negative forms wont and wouldnt with stress can express adamant refusals, eg:I wont have any backchat from you.5) Will/would denoting “predictability”“Predictability” denoted by will and would can be classified into specific predictability, habitual predictability, and timeless predictability. a)Will/would denoting specific predictability is closely related to the meaning of should, ought to and must denoting probability or likelihood. Here the speaker makes a forecast about a present event not directly observable, eg:A: Theres someone coming up the stairs.B: That will/wo