语言学的ppt课件

.,morphology,Inflectionalmorphology,Lexical/derivationalmorphology,Inflections,compound,derivation,number,tense,degreeandcase,Word-formation,Relationsbetweenlexicalwords.,Relationbetweenstemsandaffixes,.,morpheme,grammaticalmeaning;lexicalmeaning,freemorphemes,boundmorphemes,roots,affixes,Inflectionalaffixes,derivationalaffixes,prefix,suffix,stem,Freemorpheme,derivative,Boundroot,.,Exercises,Justasaphonemeisthebasicunitinthestudyofphonology,soisamorphemethebasicunitinthestudyofmorphology.Thesmallestmeaningfulunitsthatcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesarefreemorphemes.Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem,whichcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.Prefixesusuallymodifythepartofspeechoftheoriginalword,notthemeaningofit.Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthesecondelement,whilethefirstelementreceivessecondarystress.,T,T,T,F,F,.,Exercises,Theaffix“-ish”inthewordboyishconveysag_meaning.B_morphemesarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.D_affixesareaddedtoaformtocreatewords.Therulesgoverningwhichaffixareaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformnewwordsarem_rules.Intermsofmorphemicanalysis,c_canbeviewedasthecombinationoftwoormorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.,rammatical,ound,erivative,orphological,ompounding,.,Exercises,Themorpheme“vision”inthecommonword“television”isa(n)_.A.boundmorphemeB.boundformC.inflectionalmorphemeD.freemorphemeThepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechof_.A.thefirstelementB.thesecondelementC.eitherthefirstorthesecondelementD.boththefirstandthesecondelement_isabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.A.PhoneticsB.PhonemeC.MorphologyD.Morpheme,D,B,C,.,Exercises,_modifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.A.PrefixesB.SuffixesC.RootsD.Affixes_areoftenthoughttobethesmallestmeaningfulunitsoflanguagebythelinguists.A.WordsB.MorphemesC.PhonemesD.Sentences“-s”intheword“books”is_.A.aderivativeaffixB.astemC.aninflectionalaffixD.arootTheword“internationalists”contains_morphemes.A.4B.5C.6D.7,A,B,C,B,.,syntax,Asubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.Itisamajorcomponentofgrammar.Grammaticalsentencesareformedfollowingasetofsyntacticrules.,.,Mainpoint,Syntaxasasystemofrules,Sentencestructureandcategories,Grammaticalrelationswithinsentences,Phrasestructurerule,theX-bartheoryandmovementrules,Principles-and-parametersparadigminUG,.,Whatisasentence？L.Bloomfielddefinessentenceasanindependentlinguisticformnotincludedbysomegrammaticalmarksinanyotherlinguisticform,i.e.,itisnotsubordinatedtoalargerlinguisticform,itisstructurallyindependent.Itsalsocalledamaximumfreeform.,Syntaxasasystemofrules,.,Sentencesarerule-governed.,we,laughed,all,a.welaughedall.b.Wealllaughed.c.Laughedweall.d.Laughedallwe.e.Allwelaughed.f.Alllaughedwe.,Howisasentencestructured?,.,SyntaxconsistsofasetofabstractrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordstoformgrammaticalS.,Syntacticrulescomprisethesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeakerknownaslinguisticcompetence.,Syntacticrulesarecapableofyieldinganendlessofnumberofsentencesinanaturallanguage.,.,Asentence=subject(主语)+predicate(谓语),Thebasiccomponentsofasentence,1.Jacklikeslinguistics.,.,sentence,noun,predicate,NP,V,someentity,suchasaperson,aplace,athing,anidea,oranevent,subject,pronoun,phrase,gerund,Infinitive-verb,clause,FV/VP,whichsayssthaboutthesubject,VC,VA,VO,VOC,VOA,VOO,themainverbwhichexpressesexistence,actionoroccurrencelimitedbyperson,number,tenseandmood.,.,Typesofsentences,simplesentence,complexsentence,Coordinate/compoundsentence,.,Asimplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausethatcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.e.g.2.Johnreadsextensively.Aclausethat(a)takesasubjectandafiniteverb,and(b)atthesametimestandsstructurallyaloneisknownasafiniteclause(限定分句).Normally,afiniteclauseiscalledasentencewhileaclausethatiscombinedwithotherclausesiscalledaclause(从句/小句).Note:Thecentralelementinasentence/clauseisthefiniteverb.,.,Acoordinatesentence(并列句)containstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,like“and,but,or”.e.g3.Johnisreadingalinguisticbook,andMaryispreparingforherhistoryexam.Thetwoclausesarestructurallyequalpartsofthesentence;neitherissubordinatetotheother.Inotherwords,eachclauseisseparablefromtheotherandstandasastructurallyindependentS.,.,S,Johnisreadingalinguisticbook,Maryispreparingforherhistoryexam,clause1,conjunction,clause2,S,S,and,.,Acomplexsentencecontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.i.e,thetwoclausesinacomplexsentencehaveunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.Theincorporated,orsubordinate,clauseisnormallycalledanembeddedclause(子句),andtheclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixsentence(主句).4.MarytoldJanethatJohnlikedlinguistics.5.MarysawJohnreadingalinguisticsbook.6.ForJohntolikelinguisticsquitepuzzledMary.7.Marydidntlikelinguisticsuntilhegaveheralecture.8.Marylostthebookthatheboughther.,.,Thecharacteristicsofcomplexsentences:I.anembeddedclausefunctionsasagrammaticalunitinitsmatrixclause.Therefore,therelationshipbetweentheembeddedclauseanditsmatrixclauseisoneofaparttothewhole.II.mostembeddedclausesrequireanintroductorywordcalledasubordinator,suchas“that”,”until”.III.anembeddedclausemaynotfunctionasagrammaticallywell-formedsentenceifitstandsindependentlyasasimplesentenceunlessitsformchanges.,.,Thestructureofsentences,Languageisahighlystructuredsystemofcommunication.Sentencesarenotformedbyrandomlycombininglexicalitems,butbyfollowingasetofsyntacticrulesthatarrangelinguisticelementsinaparticularordertomakeastringofwordsnotonlymeaningfulbutalsolinearly-andhierarchically-structured(线形结构和层次结构).,.,Thelinearwordorderofasentence,Whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinasequence.Meanwhile,theyareheardorreadasarrangedoneafteranotherinasequence.Thissequentialorderofwordssuggeststhatthestructureofasentenceislinear(线性).,Thestudentslikethelinguisticsteacher.,.,Thehierarchicalstructureofasentence,thesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituents(成分)andshowsthesyntacticcategoriesofeachstructuralconstituent,suchasNPandVP.,A:Thestudents/likethe/linguisticsteacher.B:The/studentslike/the/linguisticsteacher.C:Thestudentslikethe/linguistics/teacher.D:Thestudents/like/thelinguisticsteacher.,.,Treediagramsofsentencestructure,Thehierarchicalordercanbebestillustratedwithatreediagramofconstitutestructure,socalledbecauseadiagramlookslikeaninvertedtree.,.,S,Thestudents,like,thelinguisticsteacher,NP,V,VP,NP,.,9.You,heandIpassedthemid-termexam.10.Theprofessorsaidthatwepassedtheexam.,.,You,heandIpassedthemid-termexam.,You,heandI,passed,themid-termexam,V,PP,VP,NP,S,.,NP,V,S,VP,VP,V,passed,theexam,(that)we,said,Theprofessor,NP,NP,S,.,Theseriousfatherandsonlaughed.,laughed,and,Theseriousfather,theseriousson,NP,VP,NP,NP,NP,.,Theseriousfatherandsonlaughed.,laughed,and,Theseriousfather,theson,S,VP,NP,NP,NP,.,Visitingprofessorscanbeinteresting.,Visitingprofessors,canbeinteresting,S,NP,VP,.,Visitingprofessorscanbeinteresting.,visitprofessors,canbeinteresting,S,VP,VP,(Someone),NP,S,.,ICanalysisisanewapproachofsentencestudythatcutsasentenceintotwo(ormore)segments.Thiskindofpuresegmentationissimplydividingasentenceintoitsconstituentelementswithoutevenknowingwhattheyreallyare.Whatremainofthefirstcutarecalled“immediateconstituents(直接成分)”andwhatareleftatthefinalcutarecalled“ultimateconstituents”.,E.g，“Johnleftyesterday”canbethussegmented：“John|left|yesterday”.Wegettwoimmediateconstituentsforthefirstcut(|)andtheyare“John”and“leftyesterday”.Furthersplit（|）thissentencegeneratesthree“ultimateconstituents”:“John”,“left”and“yesterday”.,.,Inadditionaltotheuseofstructuraltreediagrams,LinguistsmayshowthehierarchicalstructureofSentencesbyusingbracketsandsubscriptslabels.,Thestudentslikethelinguisticsteacher.,S,V,NP,VP,NP,Theprofessorsaidthatwepassedtheexam.,S,NP,VP,V,S,.,Syntacticcategories:(句法类型),Thetermcategoryinsomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.，noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbPhrase,etc.Morespecificallyitreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits：thecategoriesofthenoun,forexample,includenumber,gender,caseandaccountability;andoftheverb,e.g.,tense,aspect,ice,etc.,.,Number(数)isagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,etc.InEnglish,numberismainlyobservedinnouns,andthereareonlytwoforms:singularandplural.Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs.,Gender(性)displayssuchcontrastsasmasculine,feminine,neuteroranimateandinanimate,etc.fortheanalysisofwordclasses.Whenworditemsrefertothesexofthereal-worldentities，wenaturalgender(theoppositeisgrammaticalgender).,.,Case(格)identifiesthesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.InLatingrammar,casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword,andaregiventhetermsaccusative,nominative,dative,etc.InEnglish,thecasecategoryisrealizedinthreeways:byfollowingaprepositionandbywordorder.,.,Apartfromsentencesandclauses,asyntacticcategoryusuallyreferstoaword(calledalexicalcategory)oraphrase(calledaphrasalcategory)thatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,suchasthesubject.,Wordsandphrasesareorganizedaccordingtothesyntacticcategoriestheybelongto.,Syntacticcategories:(句法类型),syntacticcategoriesmayleadtothreeresults.,.,Constitutesthatcanbesubstitutedforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticalitybelongtothesamesyntacticcategory.,Thestud