新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋6 pragmaticsPPT课件

.,Chapter6Pragmatics(语用学),-thestudyoflanguageinuseorlanguagecommunication;thestudyoftheuseofcontexttomakeinferenceaboutmeaning.-thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.,.,SomebasicnotionsinPragmatics,ContextPragmaticsvs.semanticsSentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaningCorrectnessvs.appropriateness,.,Context,Context-abasicconceptinthestudyofpragmatics.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer,suchasculturalbackground,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),therelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer,etc.,.,Pragmaticsvs.semantics,Semantics-isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).Pragmatics-thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintoconsideration),e.g.“TodayisSunday”,semantically,itmeansthattodayisthefirstdayoftheweek;pragmatically,youcanmeanalotbysayingthis,alldependingonthecontextandtheintentionofthespeaker,say,makingasuggestionorgivinganinvitation,.,Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning,-Sentencemeaning:abstractandcontext-independentmeaning;literalmeaningofasentence;-utterancemeaning:concreteandcontext-dependentmeaning;intendedmeaningofaspeaker;,.,Forexample,“Thebagisheavy”canmean:,abagbeingheavy(sentencemeaning);anindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag;Note:Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonthesentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext;utterancemeaningisricherthansentencemeaning;itisidenticalwiththepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersthesentence.,.,Correctnessvs.appropriateness,“Johnplaygolf”-grammaticallyincorrect;“GolfplayedJohn”-logicallyincorrect;butitmightbeappropriatepragmaticallyincertaincontext.,Note:Pragmaticscanmakesenseoutofnonsense,givenasuitablecontext.Appropriatenessisveryimportantinlinguisticcommunication,especiallyincross-culturalcommunication.Ifyousaysomethinggrammaticallyincorrect,youareatworsecondemnedas“speakingbadly”,but,ifyousaysomethinginappropriately,youwillbejudgedas“behavingbadly”,suchasinsincere,untruthful,ordeceitful.(Thomas,1983),.,Speechacttheory,SpeechactsisatermderivedfromtheworkofthephilosopherJ.L.Austin(1962)andnowusedtorefertoatheorywhichanalyzestheroleofutterancesinrelationtothebehaviorofthespeakerandthehearerininterpersonalcommunication.Itaimstoanswerthequestion“Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”,.,Twotypesofutterances(话语),constatives(叙述句)-statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable(verifaibl能证实的)performatives(施为句)-sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.Note:Sometimestheyareeasytogetconfused,e.g.“Itisrainingoutside”canbeaconstative,andalsoaperformative,forbyutteringsuchasentence,wemaynotonlystateafact,butinvolveintheactofinformingsomeoneabouttherain.,.,SomeExamplesofPerformatives,“Ido”“InamethisshipElizabeth.”“Igiveandbequeath(遗赠)mywatchtomybrother.”“Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.”“Ideclarethemeetingopen.”,.,Austinsnewmodelofspeechacts,-AccordingtoAustinsnewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.thelocutionaryact（言内行为）-anactofsayingsomething,i.e.anactofmakingameaningfulutterance(literalmeaningofanutterance);theillocutionaryact（言中行为）-anactperformedinsayingsomething:insayingX,IwasdoingY(theintentionofthespeakerwhilespeaking).theperlocutionaryact（言后行为）-anactperformedasaresultofsayingsomething:bysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ(thehearersresponse).,.,Forexample,“Itiscoldinhere.”,Itslocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliteralmeaningtheweatheriscoldinhere;Itsillocutionaryactcanbearequestofthehearertoshutthewindow;Itsperlocutionaryactcanbethehearersshuttingthewindoworhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest.-Analyzeonemoreexample:“Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.”Note:Ofthethreeacts,whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithistheillocutionaryact.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.,.,Analyzetheillocutionaryactsofthefollowingconversationbetweenacouple:-(thetelephonerings)-H:Thatthephone.(1)-W:Iminthebathroom.(2)-H:Okay.(3)Thisseeminglyincoherentconversationgoesonsuccessfullybecausethespeakersunderstandeachothersillocutionaryacts:(1)Makingarequestofhiswifetogoandanswerthephone.(2)Arefusaltocomplywiththerequest;issuingarequestofherhusbandtoanswerthephoneinstead.(3)Acceptingthewifesrefusalandacceptingherrequest,meaning“allright,Illanswerit.”,.,Searlesclassificationofspeechacts(1969),Assertives/representatives(阐述)Directives(指令)Commissives(承诺)Expressives(表达)Declarations(宣告),.,Assertives/representatives(阐述),-Statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue,e.g.Ithinkthefilmismoving.ImcertainIhaveneverseenthemanbefore.Isolemnlyswearthathehadgotit.,.,Directives(指令),-Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething,e.g.Iorderyoutoleaverightnow.Openthewindow,please.Yourmoneyoryourlife!,.,Commissives(承诺),-Committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction,e.g.Ipromisetocome.Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.,.,Expressives(表达),-Expressingthespeakerspsychologicalstateaboutsomething,e.g.Imsorryforbeinglate.Iapologizeforthesufferingsthatthewarhascausedtoyourpeople.,.,Declarations(宣告),-Bringingaboutanimmediatechangeintheexistingstateoraffairs,e.g.Inowappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.Youarefired.Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.,.,Note:(1)Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposebutdifferintheirstrengthorforce,e.g.Iguess/amsure/swearheisthemurderer.Note:(2)Inordertogetsomeoneopenthedoor,wecanchooseonefromavarietyoftheformsinbelow:Couldyouopenthedoor,please!Canyouopenthedoor!Doyoumindopeningthedoor?Openthedoor!Thedoorplease!,.,Principleofconversation(PaulGrice)(会话原则）,Cooperativeprinciple(CP)-AccordingtoGrice,inmakingconversation,thereisageneralprinciplewhichallparticipantsareexpectedtoobserve.Itgoesasfollows:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.答非所问：,.,FourmaximsofCP,Themaximofquality-Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.-Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.Themaximofquantity-Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequiredforthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange.-Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Themaximofrelation-Berelevant(makeyourcontributionrelevant).Themaximofmanner-Avoidobscurityofexpression.-Avoidambiguity.-Bebrief.-Beorderly.,.,Conversationalimplicature（言外之意/会话含义）,Inrealcommunication,however,speakersdonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Thesemaximscanbeviolatedforvariousreasons.Whenanyofthemaximsisblantantlyviolated,i.e.boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation,ourlanguagebecomesindirect,thenconversationalimplicaturearises.,.,ViolationofMaximofquality,-A:Wouldyouliketogomoviewithmetonight?-B:Thereisnofilmtonight.(lackingevidence)-A:wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?-B:Idontlikeparties.(alie)-A:WhowasthatladyIsawyouwithlastnight?-B:Thatwasnolady.Thatwasamanwithlonghair.(alie),.,Violationofmaximofquantity,-Atapartyayoungmanintroduceshimselfbysaying“ImRobertSampsonfromLeeds,28,unmarried”-“Wariswar.”-“Girlsaregirls.”-A:WhenisSusansfarewellparty?-B:Sometimenextmonth.,.,Violationofmaximofrelation,-A:Howdidthemathexamgotoday,Jonnie?-B:Wehadabasketballmatchwithclass2andwebeatthem.-A:Thehostessisanawfulbore.-B:Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,arentthey?-A:Whattimeisi