翻译的功能学派

UnitFourTheFunctionalistApproaches,I.GeneralIntroductionII.ReissTextTypology(文本类型理论)III.Holz-MntarrisTranslationalActionTheory(翻译行为理论)IV.VermeersSkoposTheory(目的论)V.ChristianeNord:FunctionalityPlusLoyalty(功能加忠诚理论),I.GeneralIntroduction,DevelopedinGermanyinthelate1970s.Ageneralshiftfrompredominantlylinguisticandratherformaltranslationtheoriestoamorefunctionallyandsocioculturallyorientedconceptoftranslation.“Functionalistmeansfocusingonfunctionorfunctionsoftextsandtranslation.”(Nord,1997),Linguisticapproaches,functionalist/communicativeapproaches,linguistic,formaltheoriese.g.equivalence,functional,socioculturaltheories,Actiontheory,Textlinguistics,Receptiontheories,Communicationtheory,Origin:Dissatisfactionwiththeequivalencetheoryinprofessionalpractice.Twoexceptions(Reiss):(1)Whenthetargettextisintendedtoachieveapurposeorfunctionotherthatthatoftheoriginal(e.g.adaptationsofprosetextsforthestage,translatingShakespear;splaysforforeignlanguageclass),functinalitytakesprecedenceoverequivalence.(2)Whenthetargettextaddressesanaudiencewihichisdifferencefromtheintendedreadershipoftheorginal(e.g.TranslatingGulliversTravelsforchildren,purificationsmotivatedbyreligious,ideological,ethicalreasons)reader-orientednesstakesprecedenceoverequivalence.,Translationisaformofhumanaction(translationalaction)designedtoachieveaparticularpurpose.Translationisacommunicativeactioncarriedoutbyanexpertininterculturalcommunication(thetranslator),playingtheroleofatextproducerandaimingatsomecommunicativepurpose(Nord2001:151),KatharinaReiss:PossibilitiesandLimitationsofTranslationCriticism:CategoriesandCriteriaforaFairEvaluationofTranslations(翻译批评的可能性与限制1971).Languagefunction:representation（描述）expression(表达)appeal（诉请）.Text-type:informativeexpressiveoperative.,KatharinaReissandHansJ.Vermeer:GroundworkforaGeneralTheoryofTranslation(翻译理论基础1984).Vermeer:skopostheory,anattempttobridgethegapbetweentheoryandpractice.Reiss:“adequacy”concept(adequatetotherequirementsofthetranslationbrief);adaptherfunctionaltext-typemodeltothegeneraltheory.,JustaHolz-Manttari:EntwurffureinenStudienganTranslatorikundeinenPromotionsstudiengangTranslatologie(1985).Theoryoftranslationalaction.Focuson:theactionalaspect;therolesoftheparticipants;thesituationalconditions;thestatusofthetranslator.,ChristianeNord:TranslatingasaPurposefulActivity:FunctionalistApproachesExplained(1997).functionalityplusloyalty.,II.ReissTextTypology,1.KatharinaReiss(1923)Germanlinguistandtranslationscholar.TranslationCriticism:ThePotentialsandLimitations.CategoriesandCriteriaforTranslationQualityAssessment.(2000),“,Atext-linguisticorpragmaticapproachtotranslation-thecommunicativefunctionofatextinitssourceculturedeterminesitsfunctioninthetargetcultureandhowitwillbetranslated.Equivalence:words/sentences-text(unitofmeaningortranslation)ThefirsttointroduceintoTSaconsiderationofthecommunicativepurposeoftranslation.,“,Reisssfunctionaltext-typemodel/theoryoftexttypology:BasedonKarlBuhlersfunctionsoflanguage,Reissputsforwardfourtypesoftext:Text-types:Informativetext(content-focused)：“Plaincommunicationoffacts”Expressivetext(form-focused)：“Creativecomposition”Operativetext(appeal-focused)：“Inducingbehavioralresponses”Audiomedialtexts(视听媒体文本)e.g.movies,TVprogramsandcommercials,SpecifictranslationmethodssuggestedbyReiss:TheTTofaninformativetextshouldtransmitthefullreferentialorconceptualcontentoftheST.TheTTofanexpressivetextshouldtransmittheaestheticandartisticformoftheST.TheTTofanoperativetextshouldproducethedesiredresponseintheTTreceiver.Audio-medialtextsrequirethe“supplementary”method.,“,Texttypesandvarieties(genres),cf.NewMarkstheoryontexttypesThreemaintypesoftexts:Expressivetext(表达功能文本)(semantictranslation)Informativetext(信息功能文本)(communicativetranslation)Vocativetext(呼唤功能文本)(communicativetranslation)(Newmark,ATextbookofTranslation,1988)Newmarkadmitsthatfewtextsarepurelyexpressive,informativeorvocative(1988:47),“,Reisssuggeststheconceptof“adequacy”inoppositionto“equivalence”,whichreferstothequalitiesofatargettextwithregardtothetranslationbrieftranslationinstructiongivenbythetranslationcommissionerortheclient.,“,Anadequatetranslationshouldbe“adequateto”therequirementsofthetransaltionbrief.Withintheframeworkofskopostheory,anadequatetranslationisgoal-orientedanddeterminedbytheskoposofthetranslation.,“,ThefunctionoftheTTmaydifferfromthatoftheST.JonathanSwiftsGulliversTravels(1726).asatiricalnovel(i.e.anoperativetext)-entertainingfiction(i.e.anexpressivetext).,Contributions:translationtheory:lowerlinguisticlevels-communicativefunctionoftranslation.thefunctionoftheTTmaybedifferentfromtheSTfunction(challengingequivalence),Criticism:Fawcett1997:1068).whythereshouldonlybethreetypesoflanguagefunction?(addafourthphaticfunction)Whethertexttypesandgenrescanbedifferentiatedonthebasisoftheprimaryfunction(hybridtext).Thetranslationmethodemployeddependsonfarmorethanjusttexttype.,III.Holz-ManttarisTheoryofTranslationalAction（翻译行为理论）,JustaHolz-Manttari:aFinland-basedGermanprofessionaltranslator,translationscholar.EntwurffureinenStudienganTranslatorikundeinenPromotionsstudiengangTranslatologie(1984),Drawinginspirationsfromactiontheoryandcommunicationtheory,Manttaridefinestranslationas“acomplexactiondesignedtoachieveaparticularpurpose”,i.e.“translationalaction”inherterm,andas“transferringinformationembeddedinoneculturetoreceiversinanotherculture”,i.e.“aprocessofinterculturalcommunication”Itisnotabouttranslatingwords,sentencesortextsbutisineverycaseaboutguidingtheintendedco-operationoverculturalbarriersenablingfunctionallyorientedcommunication.(Holz-Mnttri1984:78),Holz-Mntarris(1984)Theoryoftranslationalaction（行为理论）Whichfocuseson:theactionalaspectsofthetranslationalprocess;therolesoftheparticipants(sender,initiator,translator,userandreceiver);thesituationalconditions(time,place,andmediuminwhichtranslationactivitiestakeplace);thestatusofthetranslator,consideredastheexpertintheprocessofproducingappropriate“messagetransmitters”ininterculturalortransculturalcummunication.,Holz-Mntarris(1984)Theoryoftranslationalaction（行为理论）AtranslationprocessinvolvesTheinitiator(翻译发起者)Thecommissioner(委托人)TheSTproducer(原文生产者)TheTTproducer(译文生产者）TheTTuser(译文使用者)TheTTreceiver(译文接受者),IV.VermeersSkoposTheory(目的论)1.HansJ.Vermeer(19302010)ProfessorofLinguisticsattheUniversityofMainzandheldachairinTranslationStudiesatHeidelbergUniversity.Reisssstudent.Publications:ASkopostheoryofTranslation:SomeArgumentsforandagainst.(1996)GrundlegungeinerallgemeinenTranslationstheorie(1984)(GroundworkforaGeneralTheoryofTranslationalAction:SkoposTheoryExplained.),2.DevelopmentofSkopostheory:VermeersskopostheoryisthemostinfluentialfunctionalmodeloftheGermanschool/thelandmarkoffunctionalapproachestotranslation.(1)Skopos:Greekword,“purpose”,atechnicaltermfortheaimorpurposeofatranslation(2)ItwasfirstformulatedinVermeerspaper“FrameworkforaGeneralTranslationTheory”(1978);furtherdevelopedinhisco-authoredbookGroundworkforaGeneralTheoryofTranslation(1984);extensivelyexplainedinNordsbookTranslatingasaPurposefulActivity(1997).,3.SkoposTheory,Translationisatypeofhumanaction,anintentional,purposefulbehaviorthattakesplaceinagivensituation.Theskopostheoryholdsthat“thewaythetargettexteventuallyshapesupisdeterminedtoagreatextentbythefunction,orskopos,intendedforitinthetargetcontext”(Hatim,2005:74).Theaimofanytranslationalaction,andthemodeinwhichitistoberealized,arenegotiatedwiththeclientwhocommissionstheaction.Threebasicrules:skoposrule,coherencerule,fidelityrule.,(1)Skoposrule:,PurposeofTT(targettext)determinestranslationmethodsandstrategies“Theprimeprinciplethatanytranslationshouldobserveis“skoposrule”:theskopos(purpose)ofanytranslationisgoingtofulfilldecidesthewholetranslatingprocess.Askoposisessentialtotranslationanditplaysadirectanddecisiveroleinwhattranslationstrategiesatranslatorwilladopttofulfillhisaiminthewholetranslationprocess.”(Vermeer,1978)“theendjustifiesthemeans”byReissandVermeer.,TranslationdecisionsareNOTdeterminedby.SourceText(ST)SourceTextseffectsonrecipientsfunctionassignedtoSourceTextbyauthor,Translationdecisionsaredeterminedby.theprospectivefunctionoftheTT,asdeterminedbytheTTusersneeds,Vermeeralsostressesonmanyoccasionsthattheskoposruleisageneralrule,andtranslationstrategiesandmethodsaredeterminedbythepurposeandtheintendedfunctionofthetargettext.,Forexamples,Advertisingtextsaresupposedtoadvertise;translationofadvertisingtextsisdeterminedbysuchagoal.Instructionsforusearesupposedtodescribehowanapparatusistobeassembled,handledandmaintained;themoresmoothlythisisdone,thebettertheinstructionsevidentlyare.Newspaperreportsaretoinformtherecipient,atleast;thetranslationthushastobecomprehensibletotheexpectedreadership,i.e.theaddressees.,(2)Coherencerule:(intratextualcoherence语内连贯)translatedtextmustbesufficientlycoherenttoallowtheintendedaddresseestocomprehendit,giventheirassumedbackgroundknowledgeandsituationalcircumstances.TTmustbeinterpretableascoherentwiththeTTreceiverssituation(ReissandVermeer1984:113).Inotherwords,thetargettextmustbetranslatedinsuchawaythatitiscoherentforthetargettextreceivers,giventheircircumstancesandknowledge.,Intermsofcoherencerule,thesourcetextisnolongerofmostauthority.Itisonlyanofferofinformationforthetranslator,whointurnpicksoutwhatheconsiderstobemeaningfulinthereceiverssituation.,(3)Fidelityrule:(intertextualcoherence语际连贯)Thetranslatedtextshouldbearsomerelationshipwiththecorrespondingsourcetext.Thefidelityrulemerelystatesthattheremustbecoherencebetweenthetranslatedversionandthesourcetext,Hierarchicalorderoftherules:SkoposCoherenceFidelity,TheRelationshipamongtheRulesFidelityruleisconsideredsubordinatetocoherencerule,andbothofthemaresubordinatetotheskoposrule.Ofthethreerules,theskoposruleisthetop-rankingone,whichmustbegivenpriorityoveranyotherrulesintranslatingwhenthereisaconflictamongthem.Iftheskoposrequiresachangeoffunction,thecriterionwillnolongerbefidelitytothesourcetext,butadequacyorappropriatenesswithregardtotheskopos.Andiftheskoposdemandsintra-textualincoherence,thestandardofcoherenceruleisnolongervivid.,Contributionofskopostheory:Itmovestranslationtheorybeyondthestaticlinguistictypologiesoftranslation.Translationisnolongerconsideredamerelylinguisticprocess,butapurposfulaction.Thetranslatorisnolongeramechanicalcopierfromsourcelanguagetotargetlanguage,butanexpertintranslationalaction.Itallowsthepossibilityofthesametextbeingtranslatedindifferentwaysaccordingtothepurposeofthetargettext.Itisnotonlywidelypractisedinprofessionalcontexts,butalsoappliedefficientlyinthetrainingofprofessionaltranslatorsandinterpreters.,Criticism:(1)Whatpurportstobeageneraltheoryisinfactonlyvalidfornon-literarytextsandnotforliterarytexts(artforartssake)(2)SkopostheorydoesnotpaysufficientattentiontothelinguisticnatureoftheSTnortothereproductionofmicro-levelfeaturesintheTT.(3)WhatkindcoherencerelationshipshouldbebetweenSTandTT?,ST,TranslationSituation1:Skopos1TranslationSituation2:Skopos2TranslationSituation3:Skopos3,TT1,TT3,TT2,V.NordsFunctionalityPlusLoyalty1.ChristianeNord(克里斯蒂安诺德)(1943-)Germantranslator,translationscholarspecialisedintranslationpedagogy.Publications:Translationasapurposefulactivity:Functionalistapproachesexplained.(1997)TextAnalysisinTranslation:Theory,MethodologyandDidacticApplicationofaModelforTranslation-OrientedTextAnalysis(2005),2.Nordsownfunctionalmodel:functionalityplusloyaltyTheunrestrictedfreedomReissandVermeer,andHolz-Manttarihavegiventhetranslatortoproduceatargettextofwhateverformsolongasitconformstotheskoposasdirectedbytheclient.,loyaltyisthisresponsibilitytranslatorshavetowardtheirpartnersintranslationalinteraction.Loyaltycommitsthetranslatorbilaterallytothesourceandthetargetsides.Itmustnotbemixedupwithfidelityorfaithfulness,conceptsthatusuallyrefertoarelationshipholdingbetweenthesourceandtargettexts.Loyaltyisaninterpersonalcategoryreferringtoasocialrelationshipbetweenpeople.(Nord1997:125)anethicalandmoralconceptaimedtolimittheradicalfunctionalismintranslationpractice.translationethics,Aim:limitstherangeofjustifiabletarget-textfunctionsforoneparticularsourcetextandraisestheneedforanegotiationofthetranslationassignmentbetweentranslatorsandtheirclients(ibid.:126).,Thetranslatorshouldaimatproducingfunctionaltargettextwhichconformstotherequirementsofthetranslationskoposfixedbytheinitiator,atthesametimerespectingthelegitimateinterestsofboththeauthoroftheoriginalandthereadersofthetranslation.Function:thefactorsthatmakeatargettextworkintheintendedwayinthetargetsituation.Loyalty:thetranslatorsresponsibilitytowardthesource-textauthor,theinitiatorandthetargetrecipient,3.Translation-orientedtextanalysisLimitationofSkopostheory:payinginsufficientattentiontothelinguisticnatureoftheSTandtothereproductionofmicro-levelfeaturesintheTT.TextAnalysisinTranslation(1988/2005),(1)twobasictypesoftranslationproduct(andprocess)documentarytranslation(文献性翻译);instrumentaltranslation(工具性翻译).,Documentarytranslation:(文献型翻译)(metatextualfunctioninformingthetargetreaderaboutcertainaspectsoftheoriginaltextanditscommunicativesituation):interlinealtranslation(word-for-wordtrans.),literaltranslation,philologicaltranslation(culturalexplanation)文献学翻译literaltranslation,addedbynecessaryculturalor(meta-)linguisticinformationinfootnotesorglossaries(直译+脚注/尾注).e.g.trans.ofclassicaltextsexoticisingtranslation(foreignizationinliterarytrans.)servesasadocumentofasourceculturecommunicationbetweentheauthorandtheSTrecipient(Nord2005:80),Instrumentaltranslation:function-preservingtranslations.servesasanindependentmessagetransmittinginstrumentinanewcommunicativeactioninthetargetculture,andisintendedtofulfillitscommunicativepurposewithouttherecipientbeingconsciousofreadingorhearingatextwhich,inadifferentform,wasusedbeforeinadifferentcommunicativesituation(Nord2005:80),Equifunctional(同功能)translationifthefunctionofthetargettextisthesameasthatoftheoriginal.e.g.translationoftechnicaltexts,instructionsforuse.Heterofunctional(异功能)translationifthefunction(s)cannotbereproduced.Homologous(类似功能)translationintendedtoachievehomologousfunctionandeffect.e.g.translationofpoetry.,Documentarytranslationistoreproducecertainaspectsofthesourcetext-in-situationforthetargetreadership;Instrumentaltranslationistoachievethesamerangeoffunctionsasanoriginaltexthas.,(2)Translation-orientedfunctionalmodelthreeaspectsoffunctionalistapproaches：1)theimportanceofthetranslationbrief(commission);2)theroleoftranslation-orientedtextanalysis;3)thefunctionalhierarchyoftranslationproblems(prefertop-downhierarchytobottom-upone).(p127),1)Theimportanceofthetranslationbrief(Nord1997:5962):theintendedtextfunctions;theaddressees(senderandrecipient);thetimeandplaceoftextreception;themedium(speechorwriting,and,onlineorhardcopy);themotive(whytheSTwaswrittenandwhyitisbeingtranslated).ToprioritizewhatinformationtoincludeintheTT,2)theroleoftranslation-orientedtextanalysissubjectmatter:includinghowculture-bounditistotheSLorTLcontext;content:themeaningofthetextpresuppositions:textcomposition:includingmicrostructure(informationunits,stagesofaplot,logicalrelations,thematicstructure.)andmacrostructure(beginning,end,footnotes,quotations.);non-verbalelements:illustrations,italics,font,etc.;lexis:includingdialect,registerandsubject-specificterminology;sentencestructure:includingrhetoricalfeaturessuchasparenthesisandellipsis;suprasegmental(超语段音位学)features:includingstress,intonation,rhythmandstylisticpunctuation.,todecideon:(a)thefeasibilityoftranslation:(b)themostrelevantSTitemsthatneedtobetakenintoaccounttoachievefunctionaltranslation;(c)thetranslationstrategythatwillbenecessarytofulfillthetranslationbrief,3)thefunctionalhierarchyoftranslationproblems(a)ComparisonoftheintendedfunctionsoftheSTandtheproposedTThelpstodecidethefunctionaltypeoftranslationtobeproduced(documentaryorinstrumental).(b)Analysisofthetranslationcommissiondeterminesthosefunctionalelementsthatmaybereproducedandthosethatwilln