语言学phonology音韵学ppt课件

.,1,Chapter2phonology,.,2,Importantarticulators发音器官,Articulators,alsocalledspeechorgans,refertothosepartsofhumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeechsound.1Thelungs：肺2thevocalcords声带3Theresonatingcavities(共鸣腔)Theresonatingcavitiesiswheretheairstreamcomingfromthelungsismodifiedinvariousways,resultingintheproductionofvarioussounds.Threeresonatingcavitiesareidentified.YouareexpectedtolookatthediagramonPage27inourtextbook.,.,3,Importantarticulators,Theoralcavity(口腔):themouthItcontainsthelips,teeth,teeth(alveolar)ridge(齿龈/槽)tipoftongue,bladeoftongue,frontoftongue,backoftongue,hardpalate,softpalate(velum),uvula,epiglottis(会厌软骨).Thenasalcavity(鼻腔):thenoseNasalresonance(共鸣)canbeproducedduetotheloweringthesoftpalate(velum),resultingtheproductionofnasals.Thepharyngealcavity/pharynx(咽腔):betweenthetopofthelarynx(喉)andthesoftpalate)Thethroat(larynx)containsvocalcords/folds,ventricularfolds（膨胀带）andglottis(theopeningbetweenthevocalcords),themovementofwhichdeterminesthequalityofvoicing(voiceditisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue,i.e.itcandistinguishwords.Substitutingonephonemeforanotherresultsinachangeofmeaning.Aphonemeisanabstractunit.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Forexample,thephoneme/p/isrepresenteddifferentlyinphitandsp=it.Thenotionofthephonemeallowedlinguiststogrouptogethersetsofphoneticallysimilarphonesasvariantsormembersofthesameunderlyingunit.(Tofollowtheconvention,squarebracketsareusedtoindicatephones,andobliquesphonemes.suchas/t/,/p/,/l/.),.,15,Phone,phonemeandallophone,3.Allophones（音位变体)Thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeincertainphoneticcontextarecalleditsallophones.Whenwehaveasetofphones,allofwhicharevariantsofonephoneme,werefertothemastheallophonesofthatphoneme.Sothephonesphandp=aretheallophonesofthesamephoneme/p/.Thephenomenonofvariationinthepronunciationofphonemesindifferentpositionsiscalledallophonyorallophonicvariation.,.,16,Phones,phonemesandallophones,phoneme(abstractunit)meaningdistinguishingallophones(concreteunit,realizationofthephoneme/p/)variantstothesamebasicentityPhones(concreteunit)notnecessarilyMeaning-distinguishing,/p/,Peak,tipphSpit,speakp=,/l/,LeaplPeell,.,17,Minimalpair,phonemiccontrast,andcomplementarydistribution,1Minimalpair(最小对立体)p38Whentwodifferentwordsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtohaveformedaminimalpair,likepill-bill,pill-till,andkill-bill.Allthewordsthatareidenticalinformexceptforonesoundsegmentoccurringinthesameplaceinthestringstogetherconstituteaminimalset（最小对立集合）.Theminimalpairstestisoneoftheearlydiscoveryproceduresusedinphonologytoidentifyphonemes,soundunitsthatareofdistinctivevalue.,.,18,2Phonemiccontrastiftwosoundsdistinguishwords,theyaresaidtoformaphonemiccontrast(音位对立）,like/p/and/b/,whichareincontrastivedistribution.,Minimalpair,phonemiccontrast,andcomplementarydistribution,.,19,Minimalpair,phonemiccontrast,andcomplementarydistribution,3.ComplementarydistributionTheallophonesofaphonemedonotdistinguishmeaningorwords,butcomplementeachotherindistribution,i.e.theyoccurindifferentphoneticenvironments.Sotheyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.（互补分布）,.,20,Phonemiccontrast,minimalpairsandcomplementarydistribution,phonemiccontrast音位对立complementindistributionminimalpairminimalset,/p/and/b/inpillandbill,ropeandrobe,p=inpitandphinspit,pillandbill,pillandbill,billandkill,killandtill,tillanddill,dillandgill,.,21,Distinctivefeatures:p39-40,Adistinctivefeatureisaphoneticpropertywhichcandistinguishonephonemefromanotheroronegroupofphonemesfromanothergroup.Forexample,voicingisadistinctivefeatureforEnglishobstruents(阻塞音),includingstops,fricativesandaffricates.(Lookatp40),.,22,Somerulesinphonology,SequentialrulesAssimilationrulesDeletionrule,.,23,Sequentialrules（序列规则）,Thephonologicalsystemdetermineswhichphonemescanbeginaword,endaword,andfolloweachother.Therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsequentialrules.kbliTherearemanysequentialrulesinEnglish.(1)ifawordbeginswithlorr,thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.(2)ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:Thefirstphonememustbe/s/Thesecondphonememustbe/p/,/t/or/k/Thethirdphonememustbe/l/,/r/,/j/or/w/e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream,.,24,Assimilationrules（同化规则）,Aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.e.g.Bean,green,team,scream,tank,ninth,Thereare:Progressiveassimilation(顺同化)referstotheprocessinwhichaprecedingsoundinfluencesafollowingsound.Regressiveassimilation(逆同化)referstotheprocesswhereafollowingsoundinfluencesaprecedingsound.Assimilationcanoccuracrosssyllableorwordboundaries,asshownbythefollowing:pancake;sunglasses;youcankeepthem;hecangonow,.,25,Devoicing:aprocessbywhichvoicedsoundsbecomevoiceless.使浊音变清音e.g.FivepastlovetobadboyhastoascanbeshownlosefivePrincipleofleasteffort（省力原则）impossible(notinpossible),incorrect(notimcorrect),irregular(notimregularorinregular),illegal(notimlegal,inlegal,orunlegaletc.)我告诉你、不要、这样子,.,26,deletionrule省略规则,Asoundmaybedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.Eg.SigndesignparadigmSignature,designation,paradigmaticRule:deleteagwhenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.,.,27,Suprasegmentalfeatures:syllable,stress,tone,intonation,Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures;thesearethephonologicalpropertiesofsuchunitsasthesyllable,theword,andthesentence.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,pitch,toneandintonation.,.,28,Syllables,BeautifulLanguageCongratulationAsyllablemustcontainavowelsound.Themostcommontypeofsyllableinlanguagealsohasaconsonantbeforethevowel,oftenrepresentedasCV.Technically,thebasicelementsofthesyllablearetheonset（节首）(oneormoreconsonants)andtherime（韵脚）.Therimeconsistsofthevowel,whichistreatedasthenucleus(orpeak)（韵核、韵峰）,plusanyfollowingconsonant(s),treatedasthecoda（韵尾）.,.,29,Syllablestructure,syllableonsetrimenucleus(peak)codaconsonant(s)vowelconsonant(s),.,30,音节,Opensyllableclosesyllable开音节：即分为绝对开音节和相对开音节。绝对开音节：以发音的元音字母或者元音结尾的音节，如,be,no,he.一般是辅音字母+元音字母。by相对开音节：辅音字母（r除外）+元音字母+辅音字母+不发音的e结尾。例：make，like。发音的元音字母发本音。闭音节：辅音字母+元音字母+辅音字母结尾。Hatcupamup该音节若重读，即重读闭音节。如Begin,sit,play,open,listen,wait,study,forbid,prohibit,travelquarrel,.,31,Stress(重音),STRESSreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Intranscription,araisedverticallineisusedjustbeforethesyllableitrelatesto.Atthewordlevel,itonlyappliestowordswithatleasttwosyllables.Atthesentencelevel,amonosyllabicwordmaybesaidtobestressedrelativetootherwordsinthesentence.Pragmaticallyspeaking,everywordcanbearthestresstoexpresswhatthespeakerintendstomean.,.,32,Stressatthewordlevel,StresspatterninEegral,communal,formidable,controversyinTEGral,coMMUNal,forMIDable,conTROVersy(normal)INtegral,COMMunal,FORmidable,CONtroversy(conservative)e.g.laboratory,debris,garagelaBORatory(RP),LABoratory(GA);DEBris(RP),deBRIS(GA)GARage(RP),gaRAGE(GA)Stressissometimesplacedonadifferentsyllableforthedifferentgrammaticalfunctionawordplays.e.g.conVICT(v.)CONvict(n.)inSULT(v.)INsult(n.)proDUCE(v.)PROduce(n.),.,33,Stressatthesentencelevel,Sentencestressreferstotherelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.ThepartsofspeechthatarenormallystressedinanEnglishsentencearenotionalwords,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronouns.Theothercategoriesofstructuralwordslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbs,prepositions,andconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.Togivespecialemphasistoacertainnotion,awordinasentencethatisusuallyunstressedcanbestressed.Johnboughtaredbicycle.,.,34,Stress重音,1.词的重音wordstress一个单词至少有一个音节。需要重点突出或强调,读的响亮的的音节即为重读音节，也即重音。（单音节一般都要重读，）不响亮的音节就是非重读音节或弱读音节。go,come,child,want,try,like,一般来说，若单词只有1至3个音节，则在该单词首字母处重读；若单词有4个或4个以上的音节，则在倒数第三个音节处重读。如：university,ju:niv:siti,difficultdifiklt,Studystdi,good(免写重音符号)gud。Possibilitypsychologyphotographphotographermodernization派生词的重音多数仍为词根原来的重音。如：cover,discover.一般来说，某些单词既可以作名词又可以做动词时，动词重音在第二个音节，而名词重音在第一个音节。Record,survey,abstract,desert,present,Blackboard,blackbird,greenhouse,hotdog,.,35,Sentencestress句子重音,在不特殊强调或作对比的情况下，短语或句子的重音往往落在最后一个出现的实词上。在句子中比较重要的词都要重读。这些词大都是实词，而单音节的虚词一般不重读。重读的词汇主要有：）名词，如kitchen,peter,book,doctor）大部分的实义动词，如visit,construct,break,open）形容词，如interesting,pretty,wonderful,fantastic,）副词，如often,carefully,easily,hard5）数词，如one,a,two6）代词（但人称代词除外。包括疑问代词，指示代词，名词性物主代词7）感叹词不重读强调的词主要包括：1）限定词，如the,a,some,afew（包括冠词在内）2）助词，如dont,am,can,were3）介词，如before,nextto,opposite4）连词，如but,while,as5）人称代词，如they,she,us,themselves,ourselves6）be动词，助动词，情态动词，形容词性物主代词例如：Sothetwoyoungbrotherworkhardatthattime.所以那两兄弟在那时很努力地工作。,.,36,Tone(声调),Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferentratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Themeaning-distinctivefunctionofthetoneisespeciallyimportantinwhatwecalltonelanguage.Atonelanguageisalanguageinwhichthemeaningofaworddependsonthetoneusedwhenproducingit.Forexample,MandarinChineseisatypicaltonelanguage,whichmakesadistinctionbetweenfourdifferenttones.Thefirsttoneislevel（阴平），thesecondrise（阳平），thethirdfall-rise（上声），thefourthfall（去声）,.,37,Intonation(语调),Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation,knownasthefourtones:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetone,(andtherise-falltone.),.,38,Pitch(音高),PitchisaSuprasegmentalqualitywhichextendsoverindividualsegmentsandlongerstretchesofspeech.Pitchislargelydeterminedbythefrequencyofvibrationofthevocalfolds,andtosomeextentbytheintensityofthesound.Whenspeakersareincertainemotionalstates,theymayeitherextendtheirnormalpitchrange,e.g.toexpressangerorexcitement,ornarrowit,e.g.toexpressboredomormisery.Womensspeechusuallybearshigherpitchthanmendoes.,.,39,Chapter3morphology,.,40,WordisAgrammaticalunit:sentenceclausephrasewordmorphemeProblem:blackboard,.,41,Identificationofwords,Stability:stablelinguisticunits.chairman,butnot*manchairRelativeuninterruptibility:thoughwerecognizethreecomponentsintheworddisappointment,wecannotpauseandaddanothercomponentinbetweenthethreeparts,asin*disinterestappointment.Butwecanaddanotherwordbetweenwords:Paul,(John)andMary.,.,42,Aminimumfreeform:thesmallestunitthatcanconstituteacompleteutterancebyitself,eg-IsJanecomingtonight?-Possibly.Hi.Wonderful.Darling,.,43,ClassificationsofMorphology,Allthenouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsandinjectionsarethecontentwords/lexicalwords/openclasswords;whiletheothercategoriesincludingconjunctions,prepositions,pronouns,andarticles,(auxiliaryverb,determiners,)arefunctionalorgrammaticalwordsorcloseclasswords.,Chapter3Morphology,Contentwords/openclasswordsandfunctional/closeclasswords,.,44,VariableandInvariablewords,Chapter3Morphology,Variablewords可变词arethewordscontaininginflectiveendings,whereonecouldfindorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordforms;andpartofthewordremainsrelativelyconstant,thuseachorderedseriesconstitutesaparadigm.e.g.follow;follows,following,andfollowed;sofollowisavariableword.Invariablewords不变词donthaveinflectiveendings,e.g.since,before,although,hello,andpleaseetc.,.,45,rootvs.stem,Root词根Baseformofawordthatcannotbeanalyzedintosmallerparts.e.g.friendinunfriendliness.Awordmaycontainmorethanoneroot,inwhichcaseitisacompoundword.e.g.bookshop,blackbirdRootsmaybefree:thosethatcanstandbythemselves,egblack+board;nation+-al;orbound:thosethatcannotstandbythemselves,eg-ceiveinreceive,perceive,conceive.,.,46,Stem词干formedwhenarootiscombinedwithanaffix(thatotheraffixescancontinuetobeattachedto)任何一个可以加上词缀的单位都可以叫做词干词干可以是一个或多个词素。词根只能是一个词素。,.,47,Rootsandstemsp53,WorksWorkersworkshops,asimplestemconsistingofonlyonemorpheme,inthiscasetherootandthestemarethesame,e.g.inworks,workisboththestemandtheroot;arootplusaderivationalaffix,e.g.inworkers,workistheroot,workeristhestem;twoormoreroots,e.g.inworkshops,bothworkandshopareroots,workshopisthestem.,词干可以是一个或多个词素。词根只能是一个词素,.,48,Chapter4syntax,.,49,head,alectureabout,lecture,Specifier(left),Complement(right),a,about,.,50,SpecifierHeadComplement,alectureaboutliterature,NP,.,51,SpecifierHeadComplement,rarelyplayfootball,VP,.,52,SpecifierHeadComplement,socarefulwith,AP,.,53,SpecifierHeadComplement,partlybecauseofher,PP,.,54,Treestructure树形图,SpecifierHeadComplement,XP(Specifier)X(Complement),Variable(变量),.,55,WhatisXPrule?,XPcanbedifferentphrases,becauseX(Variable变量)standsfortheheadN,V,AorP,NP(Det)N(PP)VP(Qual)V(NP)AP(Deg)A(PP)PP(Deg)P(NP)XP(Specifier)X(Complement)(Note:“”means“consistof”;()means“canbeomitted”;“”meansothercomplementoptionsareavailable),.,56,Word-levelcategories,Majorlexicalcategories主要词汇范畴:N,V,A,PMinorlexicalcategories次要词汇范畴:determiner(Det.):the,a,both,this,thosedegreeword(Deg.):quite,very,morequalifier(qual.):often,always,almostauxiliary(aux):must,should,does,haveconjunction(con.):and,but,or,.,57,NP(Det)+N+(PP)e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirlsVP(Qual)+V+(NP)e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignmentsAP(Deg)+A+(PP)veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetoPP(Deg)+P+(NP)ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation,.,58,一般现在时,现在进行时,现在完成时,现在完成进行时,一般过去时,过去进行时,过去完成时,过去完成进行时,一般将来时,将来进行时,将来完成时,将来完成进行时,一般过去将来时,过去将来进行时,过去将来完成时,过去将来完成进行时,.,59,EndocentricandExocentricConstructions,Endocentricconstruction内向结构/向心结构:onewhosedistributionisfunctionalequivalenttooneofitsconstituents,whichservesasthecenter,orhead,ofthewhole.E.g.littleblackboyswillbeleavingboysandgirlsNote:theheadcansubstitutethewholeconstruction.,.,60,Exocentricconstruction外向结构/离心结构:onewhosedistributionisnotfunctionallyequivalenttoanyofitsconstituents.Thereisnocenter,orheadinit.Typicalexamples:1.prepositionalphrase:ontheshelf2.subordinateclauses:ifhegoesto3.basicsentence:Thegirlsmiles.,.,61,Syntacticrelationscanbeanalysedintothreekinds:positional/syntagmaticrelations横组合关系relationsofsubstitutability/paradigmaticrelations纵聚合关系relationsofco-occurrence共现关系,Syntacticrelations,.,62,positional/syntagmaticrelations横组合关系,TheboykickedtheballNP1NP2SubjectObject,Sequentialarrangementofwordsorwordorderinalanguage.,Thedogbitesthewoman.,Thewomanbitesthedog.,.,63,2.relationsofsubstitutability/paradigmaticrelations纵聚合关系,TheRELATIONOFSUBSTITUTABILITYreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.The_smiles.manboygirl,.,64,Syntagmatic,paradigmaticandhierarchicalrelations,WecangotomorrowsyntagmaticrelationShemaycomesoonIwillasknextYoucouldsleepnow,paradigmaticrelation,.,65,3RelationofCo-occurrence,Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Forinstance,anounphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective(s)andfollowedbyaverbalphrase.,.,66,ICAnalysis,e.g.HeisfromFranceHeisfromFranceisfromFrancefromFrance,.,67,ICAnalysis,Practice:PleaseanalyzethefollowingthreesentencesbymeansofICAnalysis:1.LittleTomrunsveryfast.2.Theseapplesareverysweet.3.Hisbrotherstayedathome.,.,68,ICAnalysis,1.LittleTomrunsveryfast2.TheseapplesareverysweetLittleTomrunsveryfastTheseapplesareverysweetLittleTomrunsveryfastTheseapplesareverysweetveryfastverysweet3.HisbrotherstayedathomeHisbrotherstayedathomeHisbrotherstayedathomeathome,.,69,LabeledICAnalysis,1.LittleTomrunsveryfast/SLittleTom/NPrunsveryfast/VPLittle/AdjTom/Nruns/Vveryfast/ADVPvery/Advfast/Adv2.Theseapplesareverysweet/STheseapples/NPareverysweet/VPThese/Detapples/Nare/Vverysweet/APvery/Advsweet/Adj,.,70,LabeledICAnalysis,3.Hisbrotherstayedathome/SHisbrother/NPstayedathome/VPHis/Detbrother/Nstayed/Vathome/PPat/Phome/NButthismethodistooredundantandtroublesome,sopeoplemodifieditandusephrasemarkers.,.,71,ambiguoussentences,(a)Theshootingofthehunterswasterrible.,(b)Flyingplanescanbedangerous.,(c)Timeflies.,(d)JohnlovesRichardmorethanMartha.,(e)Thepolicewereorderedtostopdrinkingaboutmidnight.,(f)Thechickenistoohottoeat.,.,72,Thismodelwaslaterdevelopedintowhatisusuallycalledthestandardtheoryoftransformationalgrammar.Chomskyalsoputforwardtheideaoftwolevelsofsyntacticstructure:(1)deepstructure(2)surfacestructure,.,73,Deepstructure&surfacestructure,Considerthefollowingpairofsentences:Johniseasytoplease.Johniseagertoplease.Structurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.,.,74,Deepstructure&surfacestructure,Consideronemoresentence:Flyingplanescanbedangerous.ItcanmeaneitherthatifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivityorPlanesthatareflyingaredangerous.,.,75,Deepandsurfacestructures,Everysentencehastwolevelsofstructure.One,whichisobviousonthesurface,iscalledsurfacestructure,andtheother,whichcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence,iscalleddeepstructure.Chomsky,TheloveofGod,Godlovessomeone,SomeonelovesGod,.,76,Chapter5semantics,.,77,5.3Wordmeaning,SenseandreferenceSense(词的系统意义/涵义)istheinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.（abstract)e.g.dog:adomesticatedcaninemammal,occurringinmanybreedsthatshowagreatvarietyinsizeandform.(CollinsdictionaryoftheEnglishlanguage)Reference(词的指称意义)meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointherealphysicalworld.(concrete)e.g.Thedogisbarking.Everywordhasasense,butnoteverywordhasareference.,.,78,Wordsthathaveasensebutnoreference:emptynames(麒麟,龙,unicorn,林黛玉),but,andWordsthathavethesamereferencebutdifferentsenses:晨星/暮星（金星Venus）,邓小平/中国改革开放的总设计师Wordsthathavesamesensesbutdifferentreferences:thesamewordusedindifferentcontext:最可爱的人、大款,.,79,denotationandconnotation.Denotation外延istheconstant,abstract,andbasicmeaningofalinguisticexpressionindependentofcontextandsituation.(Denotationofalinguisticexpressionisitsdictionarymeaning.)e.g.Dog:4-leggedflesh-eatinganimalofmanybreedsakintowolf.,.,80,Connotation内涵referstotheemotiveoraffectivecomponentofalinguisticexpression,whichissuperimposeduponitsbasicmeaning.Dog:loyal,