语言学第六章笔记和习题1

Chapter 6 Pragmaticsn - the study of language in use or language communication; the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning. n - the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.What are the differences between the two linguistic studies of meaning semantics and pragmatics?n Semantics studies literal, structural or lexical meaning, while pragmatics studies non-literal, implicit, intended meaning, or speakers meaning.n Semantics is context independent, decontextualized, while pragmatics is context dependent, contextualized.n Semantics deals with what is said, while pragmatics deals with what is implicated or inferred.What essentially distinguish semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is consideredIf it is not, it is semantics.If it is, it is pragmatics.n Pragmatic analysis of meaning is first and foremost concerned with the study of what is communicated by a speaker/writer and interpreted by a listener/reader.n Analysis of intentional meaning necessarily involves the interpretation of what people do through language in a particular context.n Intended meaning may or may not be explicitly expressed. Pragmatic analysis also explores how listeners/readers make inferences about what is communicated.Some basic notions in Pragmaticsn Context n Pragmatics vs. semantics n Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning Contextn Context- a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation(time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc. Pragmatics vs. semantics n Semantics- is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration). n Pragmatics- the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g. n “Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week; pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this, all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning - Sentence meaning:n Abstract and context-independent meaning;n literal meaning of a sentence;n having a dyadic relation as in: What does X mean?-utterance meaning:n concrete and context-dependent meaning; n intended meaning of a speaker; n having a triadic relation as in: What did you mean by X? For example, “The bag is heavy” can mean n a bag being heavy (sentence meaning);n an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag;n the speaker is declining someones request for help.The dog is barking.If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation, then we treat it as a sentence.If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.n Note: The meaning of an utterance is based on the sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context; utterance meaning is richer than sentence meaning; it is identical with the purpose for which the speaker utters the sentence.n Speech acts is a term derived from the work of the philosopher J. Austin (1962) and now used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?” n In linguistic communication, people do not merely exchange information. They actually do something through talking or writing in various circumstances. Actions performed via speaking are called speech acts.Two types of utterancesn Constatives (叙述句) - statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable;n Performatives (施为句) - sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.n Note: Sometimes they are easy to get confused, e.g.“It is raining outside” can be a constative, and also a performative, for by uttering such a sentence, we may not only state a fact, but involve in the act of informing someone about the rain. Some Examples of Performativesn “I do”n “I name this ship Elizabeth.”n “I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.”n “I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.”n “I declare the meeting open.” Austins new model of speech acts -According to Austins new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.n The locutionary act-an act of saying something,uttering words, phrases,clauses, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance); It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.n The illocutionary act-an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking). n The perlocutionary act-an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z. It is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.For example,“It is cold here.”n Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is clod here;n Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer to shut the window;n Its perlocutionary act can be the hearers shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request. -Analyze one more example: “You have left the door wide open.”Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say. n Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:-(the telephone rings)-H: That the phone. (1)-W: Im in the bathroom. (2)-H: Okay. (3) n This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because the speakers understand each others illocutionary acts: n (1) Making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.n (2) A refusal to comply with the request; issuing a request of her husband to answer the phone instead.n (3) Accepting the wifes refusal and accepting her request, meaning “all right, Ill answer it.”Linguists are more concerned about or interested in illocutionary act.The classification of illocutionary act made by American philosopher-linguist John Searle.Searles classification of speech acts (1969) n Assertives/representatives(陈述) n Directives(指令) n Commissives(承诺) n Expressives(表达) n Declarations(宣布) Assertives/representatives - Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, e.g.n I think the film is moving. n Im certain I have never seen the man before.n I solemnly swear that he had got it. Directives - Trying to get the hearer to do something, e.g. n I order you to leave right now. n Open the window, please. n Your money or your life! Commissives - Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, e.g.n I promise to come. n I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail. Expressives -Expressing the speakers psychological state about something, e.g.n Im sorry for being late.n I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people. Declarations -Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, e.g.n I now appoint you chairman of the committee. n You are fired.n I now declare the meeting open. n Note: (1) All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force, e.g. I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer.n Note: (2) In order to get someone open the door, we can choose one from a variety of the forms in below: Could you open the door, please! Can you open the door! Do you mind opening the door? Open the door! The door please!Principle of conversation (Paul Grice) n Cooperative principle (CP)- According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. It goes as follows: n Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. Four maxims of CPn The maxim of quality-Do not say what you believe to be false.-Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.n The maxim of quantity-Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.-Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.n The maxim of relation-Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant).n The maxim of manner-Avoid obscurity of expression.-Avoid ambiguity.-Be brief.-Be orderly.Significance: it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more than is literary said.CP is nearly always observed, while these maxims are not, which gives rise to “Conversational implicatures”, i.e. the language becomes indirect.Conversational implicature n In real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is blantantly violated, i.e. both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises. Violation of Maxim of quality -A: Would you like to go movie with me tonight?-B: The final exam is approaching. Im afraid I have to prepare for it.-A: would you like to come to our party tonight?-B: Im afraid Im not feeling so well tonight. -A: Who was that lady I saw you with last night?-B: That was no lady, that was my wife.Violation of maxim of quantity n At a party a young man introduces himself by saying “Im Robert Sampson from Leeds, 28, unmarried” n “War is war.” n “Girls are girls.” -A:When is Susans farewell party?-B:Sometime next month.Violation of maxim of relation -A: How did the math exam go today, Jonnie?-B: We had a basketball match with class 2 and we beat them. -A: The hostess is an awful bore.-B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, arent they?-A: What time is it?-B: The postman has just arrived.Violation of maxim of manner -A: Shall we get something for the kids?-B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.n 本章重点难点：Types of speech actsu Locutionary speech act the action of making the sentenceu Illocutionary speech act the intentionsu Perlocutionary speech act the effectsu Of these dimensions, the most important is the illocutionary act.n In linguistic communication people respond to an illocutionary act of an utterance, because it is the meaning intended by the speaker.n If a teacher says, “I have run out of chalk” in the process of lecturing, the act of saying is locutionary, the act of demanding for chalk is illocutionary, and the effect the utterance brings about one of the students will go and get some chalk is perlocutionary.n In English, illocutionary acts are also given specific labels, such as request, warning, promise, invitation, compliment, complaint, apology, offer, refusal, etc. these specific labels name various speech functions.Supplementary ExercisesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication2. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. 3. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered. 4. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. 5. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is. 6. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent. 7. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable. 8. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences 9. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. 10. Speech act theory started in the late 50s of the 20th century. 11. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative. 12. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speakers intention. II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given: 13. P_ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.14. What essentially distinguishes s_ and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. 15. The notion of c_ is essential to the pragmatic study of language. 16. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an u_. 17. The meaning of a sentence is a_, and decontexualized. 18. C_ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable. 19. P_ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. 20. A l_ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. 21. An i_ act is the act of expressing the speakers intention; it is the act performed in saying something. 22. A c_ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action. 23. An e_ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state. 24. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner. III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 25. _ does not study meaning in isolation, but in context. A. Pragmatics B. Semantics C. Sense relation D. Concept 26. The meaning of language was considered as something _ in traditional semantics. A. contextual B. behaviouristic C. intrinsic D. logical27. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _ is considered. A. reference B. speech act C. practical usage D. context 28. A sentence is a _ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation. A. pragmatic B. grammatical C. mental D. conceptual 29. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a(n) _. A. constative B. directive C. utterance D. expressive 30. Which of the following is true? A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences. B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences. C. No utterances can take the form of sentences. D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences. 31. Speech act theory did not come into being until _. A. in the late 50s of the 20the century B. in the early 1950s C. in the late 1960s D. in the early 21st century. 32. _ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance. A. A locutionary act B. An illocutionary act C. A perlocutionary act D. A performative act 33. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is _. A. to get the hearer to do something B. to commit the speaker to somethings being the case C. to commit the speaker to some future course of action D. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs.34. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ _. A. in their illocutionary acts. B. in their intentions expressed C. in their strength or force D. in their effect brought about 35. _ is advanced by Paul Grice A. Cooperative Principle B. Politeness Principle C. The General Principle of Universal Grammar D. Adjacency Principle 36. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _ might arise. A. impoliteness B. contradictions C. mutual understanding D. conversational implicatures I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l. F 2. F 3.T 4.T 5.F 6.F 7.F 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.T 12.F II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given: 13. Pragmatics 14. semantics 15. context 16. utterance 17. abstract 18.Constatives 19. Performatives 20. locutionary 21. illocutionary22. commissive 23. expressive 24. quantity III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 25. A 26.C 27.D 28.B 29.C 30.B 31.A 32.C 33.B 34.C 35. A 36.D IV. Define the terms below: 37. pragmatics 38. context 39. utterance meaning 40. sentence meaning 41. constati