沙丽金版法律英语

.,TortLaw,.,General,DefinitionTortlawisthebodyoflawthatdealswithcivilwrongs,exceptthosethatarisefromcontractproblems.Purposetocompensateaninjuredpartythroughtheawardofdamagesfortheinjuriesincurredduringatortiousact,.,General,Underlyingpolicyconsiderationsmaintenanceofapeacefulsocietydeterrencesocialresponsibilitythebalancingofeconomicinterestsagainstsocietalbenefits,.,IntentionalTorts,.,General,Definitionanyintentionalactsthatarereasonablyforeseeabletocauseharmtoanindividual,andthatdosoIntentIntentismostoftenprovedthroughcircumstantialevidencethedefendantsconduct,inthecontextofhisorhersurroundingsandwhatheorshepresumablyknewandperceived.,.,General,TransferredintentTransferredintentisadoctrineusedinbothcriminallawandtortlawwhentheintentiontoharmoneindividualinadvertentlycausesasecondpersontobehurtinstead.Underthelaw,theindividualcausingtheharmwillbeseenashavingintendedtheactbymeansofthetransferredintentdoctrine.,.,General,SubcategoriesTortsagainstthepersonassaultbatteryfalseimprisonmentintentionalinflictionofemotionaldistressPropertytortstrespasstolandtrespasstochattels(personalproperty)conversion,.,Assault,Definition(incommonlaw)anintentionalactthatcreatesanapprehensionofanimminentharmfuloroffensivecontactAssaultandbatteryAsdistinguishedfrombattery,assaultneednotinvolveactualcontactitonlyneedsintentandtheresultingapprehension.wieldingaknife,.,Assault,yellingthewordsnaketoapersonwhomyouknowisinfearofsnakesCriminalassaultandtortiousassaultIncriminallaw,anassaultcanresultfromanattemptedbattery.Sincesomeattemptedbatteriesmighttheoreticallyoccurwhenthevictimissleeping,unconscious,orunawareofthethreat,criminalassaultcanoccurevenwhennothreatisperceivedbythevictim.,.,Assault,Withthetortofassault,aperceivedthreatbythevictimisparamount.Adefendantthrowsarockatasleepingvictim.Hecanonlybeguiltyoftheattemptedbatteryassault,sincethevictimwouldnotbeawareofthepossibleharm.,.,Battery,Definition(atcommonlaw)anintentionalactcausinganunconsentedharmfuloroffensivecontactwithapersonCriminalbatteryandtortiousbatteryCriminallawrecognizesdegreesofcrimesinvolvingphysicalcontact.Thereisbutasingletortofbattery.,.,Battery,“Harmfulcontactcontactthatobjectivelyintendstoinjure,disfigure,impair,orcausepain“OffensivecontactcontactthatwouldoffendapersonssenseofpersonaldignityExamplesspittinginsomeonesface,.,Battery,intentionallyknockingahatoffsomeonesheadorknockingaglassoutofsome-oneshandwhippingahorseonwhichaplaintiffwasriding,causingtheplaintifftofallandbeinjured(anurse)failingtowarnablindpatientthatheisheadedtowardanopenwindow,causinghimtofallandinjurehimself,.,FalseImprisonment,DefinitionthedetentionofapersoninaboundedareawithoutjustificationorconsentElementsintenttoconfineapersonwithinacertainareaactualconfinementawarenessoftheconfinementbythepersonsoconfined,.,FalseImprisonment,absenceofareasonablemeansofescapeRemediesAcourtmayissueawritofhabeascorpustoreleaseapartyfromunlawfulrestraint.Thepersonfalselyimprisonedmaysuetheoffenderfordamages.,.,IIED,DefinitionshortforintentionalinflictionofemotionaldistressreferredtoasthetortofoutrageinsomejurisdictionsintentionalconductthatresultsinextremeemotionaldistressElementsThedefendantmustactintentionallyorrecklessly;,.,IIED,thedefendantsconductmustbeextremeandoutrageous;andtheconductmustcausetheplaintifftosuffersevereemotionaldistress.ExamplesAdefendantrefusedtoinformaplaintiffofthewhereaboutsoftheplaintiffschildforseveralyears,thoughthatdefendantknewwherethechildwastheentiretime.,.,IIED,Adefendantsentalettertoaplaintifffalselyinformingthepersonthataclosefamilymemberhadbeenkilledinanaccident.,.,StatuteofLimitations,DefinitionanenactmentthatrestrictsthetimewithinwhichlegalproceedingsmaybeinitiatedObjectivedesignedtopreventclaimsfromarisingafterallevidencehasbeenlostorafterthefactshavebecomeobscurethroughthepassageoftime,orthedeathordisappearanceofwitnesses,.,StatuteofLimitations,FunctionThestatuteoflimitationsisadefensethatisordinarilyassertedbythedefendanttodefeatanactionbroughtagainsthimaftertheappropriatetimehaselapsed.ApplicationThedefendantmustraisethedefensebeforethecourtuponansweringtheplaintiffscomplaint.,.,StatuteofLimitations,Ifnot,heisregardedashavingwaivedthedefenseandwillnotbepermittedtouseitinanysubsequentproceedings.TollingthestatuteMostjurisdictionsprovidethatlimitationsaretolledundercertaincircumstances.Theaggrievedparty(plaintiff)isaminor.Theplaintiffhasfiledabankruptcyproceeding.,.,ShopkeepersPrivilege,GeneralInsomejurisdictionsoftheUS,thecourtsrecognizeacommonlawshopkeepersprivilege,underwhichashopkeeperisallowedtodetainasuspectedshoplifteronstorepropertyforareasonableperiodoftime,solongastheshopkeeperhascausetobelievethatthepersondetainedinfactcommitted,orattemptedtocommit,theftofstoreproperty.,.,ShopkeepersPrivilege,RequisiteconditionsInvestigationonornearpremisesThedetentionitselfshouldbeeffectedeitheronthestorepremisesorintheimmediatevicinitythereof.ReasonablesuspicionTheshopkeeperhasreasonablegroundstosuspecttheparticularpersondetainedisshoplifting.Reasonableforceonly,.,ShopkeepersPrivilege,Onlyreasonable,non-deadlyforceisusedtoeffectthedetention.ReasonableperiodandmannerofdetentionThedetentionitselfmaybeforonlythetimenecessarytomakeareasonableinvestigationofthefacts.,.,PropertyTorts,.,General,DefinitionPropertytortsareaspecificclassofintentionaltortswhicharisewhentherightinvadedisapropertyrightratherthanapersonalright.Typestrespasstolandenteringsomeoneslandwithoutpermission,.,General,trespasstochattelshandlingitemsownedbyanotherwithoutpermissionconversiontakingpossessionofsomeoneelsespropertywiththeintentnottoreturnit,.,TrespasstoLand,Definitionthewrongfulinterferencewithonespossessoryrightsin(real)propertyItisactionableperse.(Itisnotnecessarytoprovethatharmwassufferedtobringaclaim.)Interferenceanyphysicalentrytolandthrowinganythingontheland,.,TrespasstoLand,theabuseofarightofentry,whenapersonwhohastherighttoenterthelanddoessomethingnotcoveredbythepermissionLandthesurfaceanythingpermanentlyattachedtotheland,suchashousesthesubsoiltheairspace,.,TrespasstoChattels,Definitiontheintentionalinterferencewithanotherpersonslawfulpossessionofachattel(movablepersonalproperty)Interferenceanyphysicalcontactwiththechattelinaquantifiablewayanydispossessionofthechattel(whetherbytakingit,destroyingit,orbarringtheownersaccesstoit),.,TrespasstoChattels,ElementsLackofconsentTheinterferencewiththepropertymustbenon-consensual.ActualharmTheinterferencewiththepropertymustresultinactualharm.IntentionalityTheinterferencemustbeintentional.,.,Conversion,DefinitionthewrongfuldispositionofanotherspropertyasifitwereonesownPropertysubjecttoconversionItmustbepersonalproperty:Realpropertycannotbelostandthenfound.Itmustbetangible:ananimal,money,furniture,tools,orreceipts;,.,Conversion,cropsortimber(aftertheyareseveredfromtheground)therightsinapaper,suchasalifeinsurancepolicy,astockcertificate,orapromissorynoteElementsTheplaintiffownsorhastherighttopossessthepropertyinquestionatthetimeoftheinterference;thedefendantintentionallyinterferedwiththeplaintiffsproperty;,.,Conversion,theinterferencedeprivedtheplaintiffofpossessionoruseofthepropertyinquestion;andtheinterferencecauseddamagestotheplaintiff.TraditionaldefensesAbandonmentThepropertyhadbeenabandonedbeforeitwastakenbythedefendant.,.,Conversion,AuthorityoflawThepropertywastakenbyauthorityoflaw,acourtorderorvalidprocess.ConsentThepropertywastakenwithconsentoftheplaintiff,eitherexpressorimplied.FraudoftheplaintiffTheplaintiffconveyedpropertytoathirdpersonforpurposesofevadingcreditors.,.,TrespasstoChattelsandConversion,SimilarityBothincludethewrongful,intentionalinterferenceofpersonalproperty.DifferenceThedifferencebetweenthemisoneofdegreethedegreeofpossessiontheinterferingpersonhasassumed.Ingeneral,whenanobjectisdamagedbutrepairable,trespasstochattelsisthemoreappropriatetort.Whensomethingisdestroyedorstolen,conversionismoreappropriate.,.,TrespasstoChattelsandConversion,Whentrespassisfound,apersoncanrecoverthevalueofthelostuseoftheitemandrecovertheitemitself.Conversion,ontheotherhand,allowsapersontorecoverthefullvalueoftheitem.ExampleIfsomeonestealspropertyfromyouandyouareabletorecoveritwithminimalornodamages,youmayhaveacauseofactionintrespasstochattel.Ifthesamepersonstealsthepropertyandsellsittoanother,youwillhaveacauseofactioninconversion.,.,Negligence,.,General,DefinitionconductthatisculpablebecauseitfallsshortofwhatareasonablepersonwoulddotoprotectanotherindividualfromforeseeablerisksofharmElementsThedefendantowedadutytotheplaintiff;thedefendantbreachedthatduty;,.,General,asaresultofthedefendantsbreachofthatduty,theplaintiffsufferedinjury;andtheinjurywasareasonablyforeseeableconsequenceofthedefendantsactionorinaction.,.,DutyofCare,DefinitionIntortlaw,adutyofcareisalegalobligationimposedonanindividualrequiringthattheyadheretoastandardofreasonablecarewhileperforminganyactsthatcouldforeseeablyharmothers.Foreseeability,.,DutyofCare,Inmanystates,theonlytestiswhethertheharmtotheplaintifffromthedefendantsactionswasforeseeable.,.,StandardofCare,DefinitionthedegreeofprudenceandcautionrequiredofanindividualwhoisunderadutyofcareThereasonablepersonstandardEachpersonowesadutytobehaveasareasonablepersonwouldunderthesameorsimilarcircumstances.,.,StandardofCare,Factorsinvolved:theknowledge,experience,andperceptionofthepersontheactivitythepersonisengaginginthephysicalcharacteristicsofthepersonthecircumstancessurroundingthepersonsactions,.,NIED,GeneralshortfornegligentinflictionofemotionaldistressacontroversialcauseofactionContrastwithIIEDThereisnoneedtoproveintenttoinflictdistress.(Thatis,anaccidentalinfliction,ifnegligent,issufficienttosupportacauseofaction.),.,NIED,UnderlyingconceptOnehasalegaldutytousereasonablecaretoavoidcausingemotionaldistresstoanotherindividual.Ifonefailsinthisdutyandunreasonablycausesemotionaldistresstoanotherperson,thatactorwillbeliableformonetarydamagestotheinjuredindividual.,.,ContributoryNegligence,DefinitionadefensethatbarsaplaintifffromrecoveryifhisorherownactsoromissionscontributetotheinjuryBurdenofproofInsomejurisdictions,thedefendanthastoprovethenegligenceofaplaintifforclaimant.Inothers,theburdenisonaplaintifftodisprovehisownnegligence.,.,ContributoryNegligence,DefectItisoftenregardedasunfairbecauseunderthedoctrineavictimwhoisatfaulttoanydegree,includingonly1%atfault,willbedeniedcompensationentirely.,.,ComparativeNegligence,Definitionadefensethatreducestheamountofdamagesthataplaintiffcanrecoverinanegligence-basedclaimbaseduponthedegreetowhichtheplaintiffsownnegligencecontributedtotheinjuryTypesPurecomparativenegligenceIfaplaintiffis90%atfaultheorshecanstillrecover10%ofhislosses.,.,ComparativeNegligence,PartialcomparativenegligenceIfaplaintiffismorethan50%atfaultheorshecannotrecover.,.,AssumptionofRisk,Definitionadefenseinthelawoftorts,whichbarsaplaintifffromrecoveryagainstanegligenttortfeasorifthedefendantcandemonstratethattheplaintiffvoluntarilyandknowinglyassumedtherisksatissueinherenttothedangerousactivityinwhichhewasparticipatingatthetimeofhisinjury,.,AssumptionofRisk,TheoryUponassumptionoftherisk,thereisnolongeradutyofcarerunningfromthedefendanttotheplaintiff.Withoutadutyowedbythedefendant,therecanbenonegligenceonhispart.ApplicationThisdefenseiscommonlyusedincasesofinjuriesoccurringduringriskyrecreationalactivities.,.,StrictLiabilityTorts,.,General,StrictliabilityIntortlaw,strictliabilityisliabilitywithoutfault(suchasnegligenceortortiousintent).PolicybasisUndercertaincircumstances,aplaintiffmaybeallowedrecoveryeventhoughthereisnofaultonthepartofthedefendant.,.,General,ApplicationStrictliabilityoftenappliestothoseengagedinhazardousorinherentlydangerousactivities:blastingstoringinherentlydangeroussubstanceskeepingwildanimalsItalsoappliestosellersandmanufacturers.,.,ProductLiability,DefinitiontheresponsibilityofamanufacturerorvendorofgoodstocompensateforinjurycausedbydefectivemerchandisethatithasprovidedforsaleProductliabilityclaimsintheUSnegligenceclaimsstrictliabilityclaimsbreachofwarrantyclaimsvariousconsumerprotectionclaims,.,ProductLiability,TypesofliabilityManufacturingdefectManufacturingdefectsarethosethatoccurinthemanufacturingprocessandusuallyinvolvepoor-qualitymaterialsorshoddyworkmanship.DesigndefectDesigndefectsoccurwheretheproductdesignisinherentlydangerousoruseless(andhencedefective)nomatterhowcarefullymanufactured.,.,ProductLiability,Failure-to-warndefect(alsoknownasmarketingdefect)Failure-to-warndefectsariseinproductsthatcarryinherentnonobviousdangerswhichcouldbemitigatedthroughadequatewarningstotheuser,andthesedangersarepresentregardlessofhowwelltheproductismanufacturedanddesignedforitsintendedpurpose.,.,Ultra-hazardousActivity,GeneralAnultra-hazardousactivityinthecommonlawoftortsisonethatissoinherentlydangerousthatapersonengagedinsuchanactivitycanbeheldstrictlyliableforinjuriescausedtoanotherperson,evenifthepersonengagedintheactivitytookeveryreasonableprecautiontopreventothersfrombeinginjured.,.,Ultra-hazardousActivity,CategoriesTransportation,storage,anduseofultra-hazardousmaterialsdynamiteandotherexplosivesradioactivematerialscertainhazardouschemicalsKeepingofdangerousanimalswildanimals(i.e.animalsthatarenotnormallydomesticatedinthatarea)domesticatedanimalsthathaveaknownpropensityfordangerousbehavior,.,Nuisance,.,General,Definitionsomethingthatcausesoffence,annoyance,troubleorinjuryThelawofnuisanceUnderthecommonlaw,personsinpossessionofrealpropertyareentitledtothequietenjoymentoftheirlands.Ifaneighborinterfereswiththatquietenjoyment,theaffectedpartymaymakeaclaiminnuisance.,.,General,TypesPrivatenuisanceacivilwrongaviolationofonesuseorquietenjoymentoflandPublicnuisanceacriminalwronganunreasonableinterferencewiththepublicsrighttopropertyItincludesconductthatinterfereswithpublichealth,safety,peaceorconvenience.,.,PrivateNuisance,DefinitionaninterferencewithapersonsuseorquietenjoymentofhislandRequirementsContinuousinterf